All LT-LEDS provided a clear development perspective to frame the LT-LEDS and integrated climate change related aspects and objectives with development visions, priorities and principles or economic, social and environment objectives. 49% LT-LEDS indicated the close linkage between the LT-LEDS and the Parties’ national development plans and 63% LT-LEDS referred to linkages with the SDGs.

In all LT-LEDS, Parties underlined their commitment to achieving the long-term temperature goal of the Paris Agreement given climate change has already caused and will continue to cause challenges related to national development. Although 59% LT-LEDS underlined the need for massive-scale transformation, well beyond incremental change, as a challenge for the transition to low-emission development pathways, especially in terms of financing, Parties highlighted the importance of proactively seizing opportunities in the global shift to a low-emission economy with the aim of achieving sustainable and inclusive economic development.

Almost all LT-LEDS considered multiple synergies and trade-offs between sustainable development, emission reduction and adaptation to climate change.

Synergies

85% LT-LEDS highlighted synergies with economic growth, 76% with job creation, 63% with climate resilience and disaster risk reduction, 6% with improved business and industry competitiveness, 60% with better human health including through improved air quality, 59% with sustainable cities, 59% with social welfare and human well-being with reduced inequalities, 56% with long-term development planning such as infrastructure development, 51% with sustainable consumption and production including through a circular economy, 51% with biodiversity, 51% with affordable and clean energy with improved energy security and 50% with innovation and technology development.

Other areas of synergy outlined in LT-LEDS include food security and quality, economic diversification, improved trade balance with fewer energy imports, reduced dependence on imported materials including fossil fuels, reduced energy poverty, reduced traffic congestion and travel time owing to efficient public passenger mobility, improved travel options for non-vehicle owners that enable social and economic participation, improved safety in transport, improved use of public space, improved health due to more cycling and walking, more convenient and comfortable housing, increased rural development, an increase in the number of healthy and climate-resilient forests, more water conservation, and more countries with nearly zero waste. 

The synergies described in LT-LEDS correspond to many elements of the SDGs, with SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) most frequently mentioned, followed by SDG 17 (partnerships for the goals), SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure), SDG 10 (reduced inequalities), SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities), SDG 3 (good health and well-being), SDG 4 (quality education) and SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production).

Challenges

Challenges described in LT-LEDS illustrate the common threat of climate change for national development and different national circumstances, including social, economic and political conditions and capabilities. 65% LT-LEDS underlined challenges relating to finance, including safeguarding sound and balanced public finance and access to new sources of finance; 59% underlined the need for massive-scale transformation well beyond incremental change; 46% highlighted uncertainty in technology development, including cost and availability; and 40% referred to energy affordability and reliability. Additional challenges included a smooth transition away from carbon-intensive sectors (32%), protection of biodiversity and the environment (31%), socioeconomic transition in a short period of time (21%), food security (19%), carbon leakage (15%) and dependence on foreign energy and resources (12%). Other challenges indicated in fewer LT-LEDS included widespread poverty, high unemployment, a high fiscal deficit, political instability, armed conflicts and migratory pressures.

Common challenges in reducing emissions from the energy sector communicated in LT-LEDS include the significant amount of new zero carbon electricity capacity required; development of new energy transmission, distribution and storage infrastructure to flexibly respond to changes in supply and demand when deployment of solar and wind power is increased; the high cost of electric vehicles; alternate sources of low-carbon fuels for long-distance transport such as aviation; the long lifetime of buildings with high upfront costs for energy-efficiency improvements; and decarbonization of high-temperature heat required for industrial processes including cement production.

A major challenge for the AFOLU sector to contribute to mitigating climate change is competing land-use options, as 72% LT-LEDS mentioned the need to balance competing demands of multiple land uses on limited land, noting that the objectives of ensuring food security, providing renewable raw materials and protecting the environment, as well as combating climate change, must all be coordinated. In this context, 47% LT-LEDS noted the need for safeguards to limit unwanted social or environmental effects of LT-LEDS, for example related to biodiversity loss or food security.

Just transition

Parties identified various synergies between socioeconomic development objectives and transition to a low-emission economy. Recognizing that transformational structural change will result in both positive and negative effects on economic and social development, including employment opportunities, 57% LT-LEDS underlined Parties’ commitment to just transition, with 26% elaborating on the concept of just transition in a dedicated chapter. Of the 43% of LT-LEDS that did not explicitly mention just transition, 24% illustrated elements that are linked to just transition, such as fairness, equity and inclusiveness. In total, 81% LT-LEDS contained information on just transition and related elements. 

Macroeconomic effect

65% LT-LEDS provided information on macroeconomic assessments, including the impact on GDP; changes in sectoral economic outputs, employment and trade patterns; required level of investment and government expenditure; tax revenue; economic impacts caused by climate change; and socioeconomic costs and benefits of mitigation and adaptation measures such as cost saving from less energy use. Possible impacts on international trade were mentioned in 50% LT-LEDS, including new trade opportunities arising from a global transition to a low-emission economy, cost savings from decreased fuel imports and a need for export diversification.

47% LT-LEDS provided information on measures and policies pertaining to elements of just transition, such as providing training to facilitate upskilling or reskilling of workers; mainstreaming climate change in education curricula; providing adequate incentives, support and investment to promote job creation in growing markets; creating financial instruments, such as carbon pricing, to generate revenue that can be reinvested towards economic diversification and transformation; creating infrastructure, such as in relation to transport and telecommunications, to facilitate industrial growth, which is essential for economic diversification and transformation; and putting in place social welfare measures to address risks related to the transition, such as income support during job transitions, job relocation and early retirement.

Possible impacts on international trade were mentioned in 50% LT-LEDS, including new trade opportunities arising from a global transition to a low-emission economy, cost savings from decreased fuel imports and a need for export diversification.

Gender

50% LT-LEDS referred to gender, including gender integration. Significant mentions of gender appear in 25% LT-LEDS, including treating gender as a cross-sectoral issue and references to gender analysis or other tools used in planning or implementation. In addition, 25% LT-LEDS contained limited mentions of gender, mostly referring to demographic data disaggregated by sex. The limited or lack of information on gender considerations and integration in 75% LT-LEDS stands in contrast to the continued increasing integration of gender in 79% NDCs.

All LT-LEDS communicated a long-term mitigation goal, taking into account different national circumstances, with 93% referring to a quantifiable long-term mitigation goal and 7% describing policies and actions without a quantifiable long-term goal. The communicated time frames of quantifiable long-term mitigation goals vary, with 2050 communicated in most (82%) LT-LEDS. 

The mitigation goals vary and are often described differently, including as commitments enshrined in national legislation or aspirational goals, conditional on international support, as an expression of intention to move towards net zero carbon emissions over time or as a guiding principle.

Also, Parties used different terminologies to express their long-term mitigation goals, including targets for net zero emissions, carbon neutrality, climate neutrality, achieving a balance between anthropogenic emissions of GHGs and their absorption and absolute emission reduction level compared with a base year. (see figure below).

56% LT-LEDS described long-term mitigation goals in terms of net zero GHG emissions, while 4% referred to net zero CO2 emissions. The mitigation goal in 22% cannot be classified as net zero GHG or net zero CO2 emissions, and 18% did not refer to a concept related to net zero emissions and instead described absolute emission reduction levels compared with a base-year level or policies and actions without a quantifiable long-term mitigation goal (see figure below).

Alignment of nationally determined contributions with long-term low-emission development strategies

43% LT-LEDS indicated that they will guide the development and ambition of the Parties’ subsequent NDCs, including adoption of new policies and actions beyond the current NDCs. 10% mentioned that the latest NDCs are already aligned with the LT-LEDS. In addition, 18% LT-LEDS described a need for deeper emission reductions than reported in the current NDCs. 47% LT-LEDS did not provide information on how they relate to the NDCs.

28% LT-LEDS provided information on the level of midterm emissions between 2030 and the long-term target year, including indicative milestones in 2040 and carbon budgets for intermediate points in time, such as 2037 or 2040. In addition, 16% LT-LEDS referred to the anticipated timing of the peak of the Parties’ emissions ranging from 2020 to 2025, 2026, 2027 and 2030. Setting out such information in the emission pathways in more detail will guide Parties’ subsequent NDCs.

Scenarios and projections of emissions and removals

74% LT-LEDS indicated that Parties considered emissions scenarios and projections while preparing their LT-LEDS. In addition, 6% LT-LEDS indicated that Parties will develop an emissions scenario as a follow-up to their LT-LEDS.

The number of scenarios described ranged from 1 to 12. 63% LT-LEDS described multiple scenarios for considering different pathways of technology development and interdependency among sectors, such as the share of renewable energy in electricity production and electrification rate of energy end-use sectors. In addition, 59% LT-LEDS reported a scenario based on ‘business as usual’ and ‘with existing measures’ to identify additional policy interventions required to achieve Parties’ long-term mitigation goal.

71% LT-LEDS described projections of emissions and removals, including 59% by sector and 7% by GHG. Common sector categories in projections included agriculture, buildings, energy, energy supply, industry, LULUCF, transport and waste, which align with IPCC GHG inventory categories, sectors and subsectors. In addition, 41% showed the level of removals in projections. The number of modelling tools mentioned ranged from one to six, including the computable general equilibrium model, The Integrated Market Allocation–Energy Flow Optimization Model System and the Low Emissions Analysis Platform.

26% LT-LEDS described detailed projections for energy, including electricity generation or installed capacity by source, total energy consumption by source and total primary energy supply by source.

Estimated total emissions in 2050

The total emissions in 2050 of Parties that communicated LT-LEDS are estimated at 14.2 (12.6–15.8) Gt CO2 eq, which is 60 (55–64) % lower than in 2010 and 63 (59–67) % lower than in 2019, while a certain lack of clarity on the scope and coverage of long-term mitigation goals as well as quantified levels of emissions and removals in communicated LT-LEDS made it difficult to quantify emissions. 

When also considering Parties that have not communicated LT-LEDS but provided quantifiable information on their long-term mitigation visions, strategies and targets in their latest NDCs, the total GHG emissions in 2050 are estimated at 14.7 (13.0–16.4) Gt CO2 eq, which is 60 (56–65) % lower than in 2010 and 64 (60–68) % lower than in 2019, if all the pledges are implemented in full and on time.

Average per capita emissions

Average per capita emissions of Parties that communicated LT-LEDS and those that have not communicated LT-LEDS but provided quantifiable information on their long-term mitigation visions, strategies and targets in their latest NDCs are estimated at 2.3 (2.0–2.6) t CO2 eq for 2050. Compared with the global average per capita emissions of 6.8 t CO2 eq in 2019, as well as the average per capita emissions of those Parties of 7.1 t CO2 eq in 2019, the projected per capita emissions of that group of Parties are more consistent with the global average in the scenarios that keep warming to likely below 2 °C (with over 67 per cent likelihood), which is around 2.4 (1.6–3.1) t CO2 eq in 2050 as assessed by the IPCC. For the scenarios of limiting warming to 1.5 °C (with 50 per cent likelihood) with no or limited overshoot (and net zero emissions in the second half of the century), the projected per capita emissions are 1.3 (0.6–2.1) t CO2 eq in 2050.

Estimated emissions reduction in 2020-2030 and 2030-2050 

Calculated on the basis of the projected 2030 and 2050 GHG emission levels of the Parties that communicated LT-LEDS and those that have not communicated LT-LEDS but provided quantifiable information on their long-term mitigation visions, strategies and targets in their latest NDCs, the average emission reduction rate per annum between 2019 and 2030 for this group of Parties is 0.2 Gt CO2 eq, which is equivalent to 0.4 % of those Parties’ emissions in 2019. The average emission reduction rate per annum for this group of Parties between 2030 and 2050 is estimated at 1.2 Gt CO2 eq, which is equivalent to 3.0 % of those Parties’ emissions in 2019.

Estimated emission reductions over three decades to 2050

Under the IPCC-assessed scenarios that limit warming to 1.5 °C with no or low (50 % chance) overshoot, GHG emissions are projected to decrease from 2019 levels by 43 (34–60) % by 2030, which accounts for around half of reductions foreseen by 2050. In the scenarios that limit warming to below 2 °C with a likely chance (over 67 %) with the start of mitigation action at 2020, emissions are projected to decrease by 27 (14–45) % by 2030, which accounts for more than one third of reductions foreseen by 2050.

Under the IPCC-assessed scenarios that limit warming to 1.5 °C (with 50 per cent likelihood) with no or low overshoot, GHG emissions are projected to decrease from 2019 levels by 43 (34–60) % by 2030, which accounts for around half of the reductions foreseen by 2050. In the scenarios that likely limit warming to below 2 °C (with over 67 per cent likelihood) with the start of mitigation action at 2020, emissions are projected to decrease by 27 (14–45) % by 2030, which accounts for more than one third of the reductions foreseen by 2050. 

For Parties that communicated LT-LEDS and those that have not communicated LT-LEDS but provided quantifiable information on their long-term visions, strategies and targets in their latest NDCs, according to their NDCs emissions are estimated to be 5 (0–10) % lower in 2030 than in 2019, which means that it is assumed that most of the emission reductions foreseen by 2050 will occur after 2030.

All LT-LEDS described mitigation measures to achieve their long-term mitigation goal that are often a subset of one or more IPCC sectors. Almost all LT-LEDS communicated mitigation options in the energy supply, transport, buildings, industry, AFOLU and waste sectors.

Frequently communicated mitigation options in long-term low-emission development strategies

The contribution of Working Group III to the AR6 indicated that mitigation options that cost USD 100/t CO2 eq or less could reduce global emissions by at least half the 2019 level by 2030, noting that the relative potentials and costs will vary across countries and in the longer term compared with in 2030.29 Most LT-LEDS provided information on several of these mitigation options in the context of their mitigation pathways. 

Compared with mitigation actions for up to 2030, which are often described extensively in LT-LEDS, the description of those actions for beyond 2030 tends to be more abstract and high level, with a general indication of priority areas that are often based on modelled trajectories and an intention to explore technologies that are still in research, development and demonstration. Given the considerable uncertainty regarding the development and implementation of mitigation measures beyond 2030, LT-LEDS often described sectoral visions and priorities to guide respective policy plans over time.

Considering the long lifetime of infrastructure and the risk of locked-in carbon- and energy-intensive assets, some LT-LEDS highlighted that action taken during the current NDC implementation period will determine a considerable number of activities and associated emissions and removals in mid-century.

Energy

99% LT-LEDS indicated the plan to increase renewable energy in electricity systems. Solutions frequently reported in LT-LEDS to accommodate large shares of renewables include strengthening the electricity grid network, which was highlighted in 81% LT-LEDS, expanding energy storage in 63%, and integrating energy systems across sectors in 49%.

Multisector energy-efficiency improvements were highlighted in all LT-LEDS, often together with sector-focused measures, including energy-efficiency improvement of buildings in 93 per cent of LT-LEDS, energy-efficiency improvement of industry in 79%, energy efficiency of appliances in 72% and fuel efficiency of road transport in 71%.

Several mitigation options for the energy sector frequently mentioned in LT-LEDS require long-term planning on infrastructure investment. For example, 87% included plans for improving public transport networks, 68% indicated expanding electric vehicle charging points, 63% provided information on urban development with increased bicycle lanes and pedestrian zones and 35% mentioned increasing off-grid electricity access by generating renewable energy and constructing large-scale power plants.

Although there is uncertainty relating to technology development, energy prices and international trade patterns in the long term, many LT-LEDS included one or more quantitative targets pertaining to energy with a specific time frame to reflect long-term goals in near-term actions, including:

• 49% referred to clean power generation targets with target years ranging from 2027 to 2035, 2040 and 2050 and referred to them in various ways, including renewable energy power, carbon-free electricity and fully decarbonized power systems. In addition, 32% referred to a 100% clean power generation target;
• 38% communicated a target for new passenger vehicle sales for low- or zero-emission vehicles such as electric vehicles or new energy and clean energy-powered vehicles, including 15% that communicated a target of a 100% sales share in the years 2030 to 2035, 2040 and 2050. A total of 18% provided information on phasing out the sale of cars with internal combustion engines that run on diesel or gasoline. In this regard, phasing out sales of fossil-fuel passenger vehicles by 2035–2050 is considered in the SR1.5 as a mitigation option that is relevant to aligning global emissions trajectories with 1.5 ℃ pathways;
• 49% highlighted that newly constructed buildings are required to be near zero energy with a timeline of 2020, 2021, 2025 or 2050. The SR1.5 identified that requiring newly constructed buildings to be near zero energy by 2020 is relevant to aligning global emissions trajectories with 1.5 ℃ pathways;
• 24% included a timeline for phasing out unabated coal power to produce electricity, including 12% by 2030 as identified in the SR1.5, which is considered relevant to aligning global emissions trajectories with 1.5 ℃ pathways

A​​​​griculture, forestry and other land use

There are significant uncertainties in the estimates of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks in the AFOLU sector, as well as in future projections. However, 69% of LT-LEDS attempted to quantify the expected contribution from the AFOLU sector to emission reductions in 2050, although with diverse methods and sometimes accompanied by large potential ranges reflecting different outcomes by different available models.

In the light of the increasing frequency and impact of extreme weather events, 32% of LT-LEDS communicated specific concerns related to carbon sinks and carbon stocks becoming unstable owing to climate change or other long-term degrading effects. These concerns are especially important in ecosystems with limited adaptive capacity, such as monocultures, dry or mountain ecosystems, or already degraded land.

With regard to mitigation potential for agriculture, 76% of LT-LEDS referred to improvements in grazing land and livestock management; 84% to improved cropland and fertilizer management; 68% to targeted research and development, innovation, technology and rural extension services as important preconditions for effective interventions in the agriculture sector; and 47% to the potential of agroforestry.

Addressing emissions from forests and land-use change and enhancing removals in forests simultaneously was covered in 81% of LT-LEDS, including activities such as increasing the sustainable management of forests, addressing deforestation or restoring degraded forests. In this context, 31% of LT-LEDS underlined the long-term role of implementing REDD+ activities. In addition, 47% of LT-LEDS considered significant potential in the restoration of peatlands and wetlands, including 19% that made explicit reference to blue carbon.

Almost all LT-LEDS included activities to enhance sinks and reservoirs of GHGs, including in forests and other ecosystems. In total, 87% LT-LEDS referred to a role for increased forest area by afforestation and reforestation activities to achieve long-term low-emission targets. In addition, 63% LT-LEDS highlighted the potential of increasing soil carbon sequestration in agricultural lands, including cropland and grassland. Another option is increasing carbon storage in the harvested wood products pool, for example by prioritizing uses of wood that have a longer lifespan and high substitution potential, which was mentioned in 51% LT-LEDS.

Reducing food loss and waste at the different stages of production and consumption was identified as an activity to reduce emissions in 47% of LT-LEDS, for example by reducing food waste in the retail sector, exploring potential uses for recovered organic waste, and adapting consumption patterns towards more local and seasonal products.

Carbon dioxide removal

The contribution of Working Group III to the AR6 identified several AFOLU mitigation options as the only currently widely practised CO2 removal options, including afforestation, more sustainable forest management, peatland and wetland restoration, agroforestry, and blue carbon management; however, their removal potential is limited owing to competition for other land uses. It further stated that removing CO2 to counterbalance hard-to-abate residual emissions is unavoidable if trying to achieve net zero CO2 or other GHG emissions. In this regard, Parties reported non-conventional CO2 removal options. For example, 32% LT-LEDS mentioned BECCS as necessary to limit temperature increase but not immediately deployable, and 22% mentioned DACCS as technology that may be used in the future should significant cost reduction be needed. 

Circular economy, resource efficiency, and waste management

71% LT-LEDS mentioned circular economy as an objective or guiding principle for long-term low-emission development, particularly in the context of mitigation. Almost all LT-LEDS indicated specific elements described under the circular economy concept, including waste recycling (79%), resource and material efficiency of industry (57%) and waste reuse (56%).

With regard to the concept of a circular economy, Parties aim to reduce demand for new raw materials, energy inputs and water; minimize waste; and conserve the ecosystem through the efficient use of resources, including through product reuse, recycling and sharing. The circular economy provides a cross-sectoral life cycle perspective, and Parties reported priority sectors as including construction, food, forestry and transport.

Shifting from a linear economy to a circular economy entails changes in production processes and consumption patterns in favour of products designed to be durable, repairable, recyclable and renewable. In the context of renewable products, a few LT-LEDS underlined the concept of a bioeconomy where wood is promoted as both a raw material and a final product as a way to sustainably regenerate a natural system.

The policy effort referred to most frequently in LT-LEDS was a national road map and strategy for a circular economy, and other measures included improving the system and infrastructure for waste collection, separation and recycling; tightening industry standards and targets for using recycled materials; promoting eco-design with a focus on reuse, durability, recyclability, recycled material content and reparability; raising consumer awareness; and using empty built public spaces and multifunctional and shared buildings to reduce built area.

79% LT-LEDS provided information on key climatic changes, in particular increases in mean surface temperature, precipitation changes and sea level rise. These were identified as triggering climate change hazards and impacts. The hazards include increases in frequency and/or intensity of drought, heavy rainfall events, fluvial and coastal flooding, coastal erosion, heatwaves, extreme temperatures, fires, storms and tropical cyclones, landslides, and ocean temperature and acidification. Agriculture, livestock and fisheries; infrastructure, transport and tourism; terrestrial, coastal and ocean biodiversity and ecosystems; urban areas and settlements; water resources; and human health were shown in LT-LEDS to be the most vulnerable sectors to climate change impacts and hazards.

82% LT-LEDS provided an overview of national adaptation and resilience policies and strategies of developed countries, together with NAPs of developing countries. National adaptation and resilience policies and strategies of developed countries typically focused on reviewing risks and vulnerabilities, including adaptation actions, driving innovation and investments, strengthening cooperation among multiple actors, tracking adaptation progress and supporting learning.

43% LT-LEDS stressed the importance of incorporating a just transition into adaptation and resilience plans and strategies. It was highlighted that a goal within the adaptation process should be to reduce existing inequalities and ensure that adaptation measures benefit the groups most vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. As such, just transition was typically viewed in the context of equity and focused on integrating gender, intergenerational and human rights based approaches into adaptation measures, as well as inclusive public and stakeholder participation in policymaking processes. 

Adaptation priority sectors in LT-LEDS were typically aligned with priority sectors in NDCs. Terrestrial and wetland ecosystems (75 % of LT-LEDS), together with food security and production (74 %), which includes agriculture, livestock and fisheries, were the highest priority for adaptation, followed by key economic sectors and services (64 %), urban areas and human habitats (58 %), human health (45 %), freshwater resources (45 %), coastal and low-lying areas (40 %) and ocean ecosystems (19 %). 45 % LT-LEDS emphasized the importance of designing and implementing nature-based solutions in building resilience and adaptation in priority sectors.

Adaptation priority sectors in LT-LEDS were typically aligned with priority sectors in NDCs. Terrestrial and wetland ecosystems (81% of LT-LEDS) together with food security and production (76%), which includes agriculture, livestock and fisheries, were the highest priority for adaptation, followed by key economic sectors and services (63%), urban areas and human habitats (53%), water resources (50%), human health (49%), coastal and low-lying areas (35%) and ocean ecosystems (19%). A total of 54% LT-LEDS emphasized the importance of designing and implementing nature-based solutions in building resilience and adaptation in priority sectors.

78% LT-LEDS provided information on synergies between adaptation and mitigation actions, while 62% emphasized that adaptation and resilience efforts must be jointly undertaken with mitigation efforts.

19 % LT-LEDS included quantified targets covering all adaptation priority sectors. 81 % LT-LEDS presented sectoral adaptation actions without quantifiable information that would allow monitoring of adaptation progress.

34% LT-LEDS included quantified targets covering all adaptation priority sectors. 66% presented sectoral adaptation actions without quantifiable information that would allow monitoring of adaptation progress.

Credit: UN Climate Change

Finance

85% LT-LEDS referred to finance and/or investment needs for implementing LT-LEDS, with 37% providing costed needs and 19% describing finance needs qualitatively or providing general statements. A total of 12% LT-LEDS provided financial needs based on scenarios with existing measures as well as with additional measures to achieve net zero emissions by 2050. Climate finance needs for mitigation expressed in LT-LEDS were in the energy, forestry, industry, land use, and transport sectors, while adaptation finance is needed for activities related to agriculture, coastal protection, disaster risk management, disaster risk reduction, and ecosystem and biodiversity. The submissions identified funding sources for implementing LT-LEDS, such as domestic finance, international support and private finance. 60% identified domestic investments or resources, 35 % noted a reliance on international support to implement the LT-LEDS and 63% acknowledged the role of the private sector in financing the implementation of long-term strategies.

Technology development and transfer

Many LT-LEDS reported the strengthening of the Party’s international cooperation to accelerate the deployment and application of cutting-edge, critical and disruptive technologies, including through joint planning and the mainstreaming of technological innovation. Areas of international cooperation considered key to accelerating technology deployment in LT-LEDS include standardization and codification in electricity systems, vehicles, buildings and energy efficiency. Partnerships for advanced technology research and development were frequently mentioned as an effective way to widely deploy new inventions. International cooperation was underscored as important for enabling large-scale adoption of clean technologies because accessing such technologies often involves international collaboration and technology transfer on a global scale.

Multiple applications of carbon capture technology were communicated by Parties, including fossil-fuel power with CCUS, CCUS in industry production and processes, BECCS and DACCS. Several actions to use CCUS were reported in LT-LEDS, including reducing cost, developing suitable sites and improving the environment for its commercialization while formulating long-term road maps. Areas of research and development include CO2 separation and capture technology; storage technology; elaboration and automation of monitoring technology; and cost reduction for drilling, storage and monitoring. 

The contribution of Working Group III to the AR6 stated that unit costs of several low-emission technologies have fallen continuously since 2010, including solar energy, onshore and offshore wind energy, and batteries, and that electricity systems powered predominantly by renewables are becoming increasingly viable.34 Owing to the key role of renewable energy, 81% LT-LEDS contained information on electricity grid improvement in terms of grid capacity, flexibility and resilience with a view to supplying energy in a reliable manner and at an affordable cost. Shifting to low- or zero-carbon fuels was mentioned as a key step in decarbonizing transport in 81% LT-LEDS, with such fuels including biofuels (71%), hydrogen or green hydrogen (68%) and synthetic fuels (41%) in applications such as long-distance shipping and aviation. Shifting to low- or zero-carbon fuels was reported for each sector in 53% of LT-LEDS. Some LT-LEDS emphasized the pivotal role of innovation and technological advancement in realizing possibilities for low- or zero-carbon aviation, ranging from radical new aircraft designs (e.g. the ‘blended wing’ concept) to use of biofuels or hydrogen and innovative engine designs to accommodate such fuel use.

Capacity-building 

LT-LEDS considered capacity-building as a cross-cutting issue that is the overarching enabler for adaptation and mitigation action and meeting commitments. In addition, the LT-LEDS highlighted the importance of capacity-building for facilitating technology development, access to climate finance and community engagement. Overall, capacity-building was deemed crucial to the implementation of the LT-LEDS operational strategy.

Voluntary cooperation

40% LT-LEDS mentioned an intention to use voluntary cooperation, including the general use of voluntary cooperation under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement; use of cooperative approaches referred to in Article 6, paragraph 2; use of the mechanism established by Article 6, paragraph 4; and use of non-market approaches under Article 6, paragraph 8. 6% LT-LEDS indicated qualitative limits on the use of voluntary cooperation, including environmental integrity, transparency and avoidance of double counting of emission reductions. 9% mentioned the possibility of using offsetting to achieve the long-term net zero emission goal.

Stakeholder engagement 

85% LT-LEDS highlighted that effective stakeholder engagement plays an important role in Parties’ planning and implementation, as successful economic transformation requires collective commitments with stakeholders to achieving long-term goals in LT-LEDS. 72% LT-LEDS, while 81% referred to stakeholder engagement during the implementation of LT-LEDS.

In their LT-LEDS, Parties highlighted engagement with various stakeholder groups in the LT-LEDS preparation process and implementation plan, including subnational governments in all LT-LEDS, civil society actors in 87%, the private sector in 81%, the scientific community including academia and research institutes in 77%, industries and financial partners in 47%, youth in 47 per cent, women in 40%, workers in 36%, trade unions in 26% and indigenous communities in 28%.

In their LT-LEDS, Parties highlighted engagement with various stakeholder groups in the LT-LEDS preparation process and implementation plan, including subnational governments in all LT-LEDS, civil society actors in 79%, the private sector in 74%, the scientific community including academia and research institutes in 66%, youth in 41%, industries and financial partners in 40%, women in 35%, workers in 26%, Indigenous communities in 22% and trade unions in 19%.

Objectives and benefits of stakeholder engagement mentioned in LT-LEDS include strengthening shared leadership, ownership and high acceptance in 35%; increasing the quality, transparency, acceptance and clarity of decisions; building trust and enhancing connections with the political system and public administration in 25%; defining priorities and developing strategies tailored to national circumstances in 24%; raising awareness of climate change in 22%; identifying barriers, solutions and support needed in the short, medium and long term in 22%; collecting data and information that might not be publicly available, thus enabling better design of policies and targets, in 18%; establishing a common and shared frame of reference through a bottom-up approach in 16%; promoting understanding of different views in 16%; and developing innovative ideas.

Modes of stakeholder engagement described in LT-LEDS include a consultation process under ad hoc political bodies that provided oversight and technical guidance; parliamentary hearings; citizens’ assemblies and forums; bilateral meetings between stakeholders and public authorities; cross-cutting and multisectoral consultations and dialogues at the national, subnational and local level; expert working groups and workshops; brainstorming sessions; capacity-building, awareness-raising and education programmes and campaigns; modelling exercises; various information exchange platforms, including formal large-scale public consultations and non-formal conversation spaces; online surveys and consultation portals; stakeholder participation to monitor processes in a transparent manner; publicly available written comments on LT-LEDS at different stages of their preparation; and dialogue with vulnerable sectors and populations affected by the socioeconomic transition to a low-emission economy, building on the experience of LT-LEDS preparation.

82% of LT-LEDS underlined the role of subnational governments, including cities, municipalities and states, in realizing a transformation to achieve their long-term goals because they often have jurisdiction over a wide range of policy areas including local economic development; spatial and urban planning; housing; transport infrastructure development; waste collection and management; agriculture; local resource, environment and biodiversity management; and tourism. In addition, their proximity to citizens and local business was mentioned as a key asset in developing solutions tailored to local circumstances. Key elements for successful implementation and raising ambition at the subnational level described in LT-LEDS include enabling institutional capacities and robust support from the national government, such as adequate legal basis, resources and access to information on new national regulations and policies, as well as participation in their design from an early stage. Just 1% LT-LEDS consisted of regional instead of a national LT-LEDS and 1 per cent included information on regional LT-LEDS together with a national LT-LEDS.

Institutional arrangements

82% LT-LEDS indicated that institutional arrangements are crucial components for planning, coordinating and implementing climate change policy and action and for integrating climate change aspects into broader development planning; 11% referred to institutional arrangements specifically established for their preparation and implementation.

74% LT-LEDS provided information on formal arrangements for monitoring and reporting on progress of LT-LEDS implementation, with 12% indicating requirements to report the implementation of measures annually and 9% indicating requirements to report every two years. Overall, Parties illustrated a consolidation of their monitoring and reporting frameworks as part of the planning and implementation of their LT-LEDS.

Action for Climate Empowerment (ACE)

99% LT-LEDS provided information on using one or more ACE elements (such as climate education and public awareness, training, public participation, public access to information and international cooperation on the ACE elements) to ensure the effective implementation of mitigation and adaptation measures and acknowledged those elements as indispensable tools for mobilizing all sectors of society towards achieving the long-term goals. Parties recognized that the transition to a low-emission economy and society could only be achieved with a collective long-term vision in which all members of society, including children and youth, are educated and empowered to make climate-conscious decisions and the current and future workforce is fully equipped with the skills necessary to address the climate crisis.          

Update

74% LT-LEDS reported the intention of Parties to regularly update their LT-LEDS and 51% referred to the frequency of updates. Every five years was the most widely indicated timeline, representing 34% LT-LEDS. These LT-LEDS indicated that the timeline for reviewing and updating them is aligned with the timeline for updating NDCs, so that LT-LEDS will guide subsequent NDCs.