The policy options represent one of the key outcomes of the technical examination process and highlight replicable and scalable good practices, approaches and technologies with significant mitigation potential, which could be tapped in the period up to 2020 in many countries across the world.
The policy options cover climate actions undertaken by national governments and communicated to the UNFCCC in the submissions from Parties and observer organizations. These climate actions complement the commitments highlighted in the NAZCA portal, which registers climate action by companies, cities, subnational regions, and investors. Additionally, the policy options complement the work under the Lima-Paris Action Agenda (LPAA) that showcases transformational initiatives, which accelerate ambition in 2015 and beyond.
Link to the NAZCA portal
NAZCALand use/Other
Colombia
Policy support and frameworks
Multilevel governance frameworks
Land use/Other
Indonesia
Policy support and frameworks
Multilevel governance frameworks
Land use/Other
Kenya
Policy support and frameworks
Multilevel governance frameworks
Land use/Other
Mali
Policy support and frameworks
Multilevel governance frameworks
Land use/Other
Yemen
Policy support and frameworks
Multilevel governance frameworks
Land use/Other
Austria
Policy support and frameworks
Stakeholder consultations
Land use/Other
Bolivia
Regulatory instruments
Stakeholder consultations
Land use/Other
Cameroon
Voluntary approaches
Stakeholder consultations
Land use/Other
Congo
Voluntary approaches
Stakeholder consultations
Land use/Other
Costa Rica
Voluntary approaches
Stakeholder consultations
Land use/Other
Guatemala
Voluntary approaches
Stakeholder consultations
Land use/Other
European Union
Voluntary approaches
Stakeholder consultations
Land use/Other
Jamaica
Voluntary approaches
Stakeholder consultations
Land use/Other
Rwanda
Voluntary approaches
Stakeholder consultations
Land use/Other
Namibia
Voluntary approaches
Stakeholder consultations
Land use/Other
China
Economic and fiscal instruments
Ecosystem services
Land use/Other
Costa Rica
Economic and fiscal instruments
Ecosystem services
Land use/Other
Mexico
Economic and fiscal instruments
Ecosystem services
Land use/Other
Vietnam
Economic and fiscal instruments
Ecosystem services
Land use/Forestry
India
Voluntary approaches
Impact assessment and safeguards
Land use/Agriculture
Uganda
Voluntary approaches
Impact assessment and safeguards
Land use/Agriculture
New Zealand
Economic and fiscal instruments
Stakeholder consultations
Land use/Forestry
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Regulatory instruments
Land-use productivity and resilience
The Woodland Carbon Code in the United Kingdom was developed between 2007 and 2011 to address the lack of confidence, lack of standards and disrepute prevailing in the United Kingdom forest carbon markets at that time. The design of the Code addressed the lack of opportunities to invest in domestic carbon reduction projects. The standards developed under the Code address mitigation through the enhancement of woodland carbon stocks, but also require an assessment of resilience to climate change. The programme gained strong support from the United Kingdom Government and the national forestry sector and made woodland creation more attractive to landowners. In total, 202 projects were registered under the Woodland Carbon Code, encompassing 15,401 ha and with a potential of 5.7 Mt CO2 eq lifetime sequestration. The United Kingdom is currently considering the development of a peatland code.
Land use/Agriculture
Niger
Voluntary approaches
Improved agricultural practices
Land use/Agriculture
Rwanda
Voluntary approaches
Improved agricultural practices
Land use/Agriculture
Uganda
Voluntary approaches
Improved agricultural practices
Land use/Agriculture
Kenya
Voluntary approaches
Cropland and grazing land management
Land use/Agriculture
Namibia
Voluntary approaches
Cropland and grazing land management
Land use/Agriculture
Zimbabwe
Research and development
Cropland and grazing land management
Land use/Agriculture
Botswana
Research and development
Research, development and application
Land use/Agriculture
India
Research and development
Research, development and application
Land use/Policy support
Kenya
Voluntary approaches
Research, development and application
Land use/Agriculture
Philippines
Research and development
Research, development and application
Land use/Agriculture
Thailand
Research and development
Research, development and application
Land use/Agriculture
Vietnam
Research and development
Research, development and application
Land use/Agriculture
China
Research and development
Land-use productivity and resilience
Land use/Agriculture
Ethiopia
Research and development
Land-use productivity and resilience
Land use/Agriculture
Ghana
Research and development
Land-use productivity and resilience
Land use/Agriculture
Kenya
Economic and fiscal instruments
Land-use productivity and resilience
Land use/Agriculture
Madagascar
Research and development
Land-use productivity and resilience
Land use/Agriculture
Sri Lanka
Research and development
Land-use productivity and resilience
Land use/Agriculture
Nigeria
Research and development
Livestock productivity
Land use/Agriculture
United States of America
Research and development
Livestock productivity
Land use/Agriculture
Mongolia
Voluntary approaches
Reduction of food loss and waste
Land use/Forestry
Cambodia
Research and development
Improved forest management
Land use/Forestry
France
Economic and fiscal instruments
Improved forest management
Land use/Forestry
Republic of Korea
Voluntary approaches
Improved forest management
Land use/Forestry
Sweden
Voluntary approaches
Improved forest management
Land use/Forestry
Suriname
Research and development
Improved forest management
Land use/Forestry
China
Regulatory instruments
Afforestation and reforestation
Land use/Forestry
Panama
Voluntary approaches
Improved forest management
Despite having the highest percentage of protected areas in Central America, Panama lost an estimated 541,000 ha (14.3 per cent) of its forest cover between 1990 and 2010. To reverse this trend, a unique partnership has been created to reforest 1 million ha over the next 20 years. In support of the National Forestry Plan, the Alliance for 1 Million initiative will reforest over 13 per cent of the country land area and help to meet cross-sectoral sustainable development goals, support the nation’s mitigation commitments and protect the rich biodiversity and delivery of critical ecosystem services. The effort is an innovative public–private alliance between the Government of Panama, the Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture, civil society, non-governmental organizations, the Association for the Conservation of Nature and the Panama Association for Reforestation.
Land use/Agriculture
New Zealand
Regulatory instruments
Land-use productivity and resilience
The objective of the plan is to stimulate specific activities such as: no-tillage agriculture; recuperation of degraded land; integration of crops, livestock and forest; planting of commercial forests; biological nitrogen fixation; and treatment of animal residues. This is not an easy task, as farmers tend to be conservative in adopting new techniques. However, there is a concrete perception by farmers that the promoted practices are also more profitable and allow for production systems that are less vulnerable to risks, especially changes in climate patterns. Through the provision of tailored credit lines under the ABC Plan, around 24,000 properties received financing of approximately USD 3 billion between 2010 and 2014. Between 2005 and 2013, national crop production increased by 64 per cent, while the area used for agriculture increased by only 9 per cent. However, these achievements could be at risk depending on future climate change impacts.
Land use/Forestry
Brazil
Regulatory instruments
Afforestation and reforestation
Emissions from land-use change and forestry were responsible for about 80 per cent of Brazil’s emissions profile in 2000. In 2003, the federal government established a permanent interministerial working group to propose and coordinate actions aimed at reducing deforestation in the Amazonia biome. The second highest increase in deforestation in the Amazonia biome was registered in 2004, reaching more than 27,800 km2 (see the figure below). Also in 2004, the Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Deforestation in the Legal Amazon entered into force. The Action Plan focused on three main areas: Robust forest monitoring and law enforcement; Territorial planning; and Promotion of sustainable production activities. By 2012, Brazil had achieved a reduction in the deforestation rate by approximately 79 per cent compared with 2004. This successful outcome was achieved by the use of additional measures, including economic incentives requiring proof of compliance with environmental regulations and the involvement of the private sector in sustainable development round tables. Brazil was the first developing country to submit a REDD-plus forest reference emission level for technical assessment in the context of results-based payments to the UNFCCC.
Land use/Forestry
Ghana
Voluntary approaches
REDD-plus
Ghana anticipates that it will achieve emission reductions of 18.5 Mt CO2 eq by 2020 through its REDD-plus efforts. In a subnational approach covering 25 per cent of the national land area, the programme focuses on increased productivity and resilience of agricultural production, in particular of cocoa, timber, palm oil and food crops. Combined with efforts to monitor and legally protect forests, these measures can reduce emissions from deforestation (reducing deforestation is included in REDD-plus, as mentioned above). At the same time, Ghana aims to conserve biodiversity in this global biodiversity hotspot and improve the livelihoods of the local population.
Land use/Forestry
Mexico
Policy support and frameworks
REDD-plus
In June 2010, the Governments of Norway and Mexico signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) on cooperation in the field of the environment, forest and climate change. The MoU identified specific areas of cooperation relevant for the implementation of REDD-plus through an agreement entitled “Reinforcing REDD plus and South-South Cooperation”. The three-year, USD 15 million programme had a key goal, which is to promote Mexico as a leader in South-South cooperation to exchange experiences on REDD-plus, in particular measurement, reporting and verification. Mexico’s approach to REDD-plus implementation includes the use of special programmes, which constitute institutional efforts that seek to direct resources to specific areas with high rates of deforestation and forest degradation, and are prepared in accordance with actual local needs.
Currently, the National Forestry Commission is implementing three special programmes, which are being carried out in areas that correspond to the Early REDD-plus Actions: the Special Programme for the Lacandona Jungle; the Special Programme for the Jalisco Coastal Basins; and the Special Programme for the Yucatán Peninsula. All special programmes are adapted to local needs, promote local governance mechanisms, have the flexibility to change based on acquired knowledge and feed their experiences back to the national level. They also involve a public agent for territorial development, which allows for the integration of the programmes at the territorial level and the provision of support from other institutions. Measures to support these efforts include payments for ecosystem services, regeneration of jungles, diversified reforestation, sustainable forest management and community forest development.
Land use/Forestry
China
Policy support and frameworks
Improved forest management
In order to achieve the ambitious goal of increasing the net increment of forest area by 40 million ha by the end of 2020 compared with 2005, China combines a number of afforestation, forest protection and sustainable forest management policies and practices.
With regard to forest management, China emphasizes the importance of sustainable logging activities as well as fire monitoring and control of dangerous pests and diseases. Afforestation activities are integrated into China’s master plan of national social and economic development, the national plan for addressing climate change, and the forestry development plan. Activities largely take place on degraded agricultural land. Newly established forests provide a number of additional benefits, including offering an effective method of sandstorm source control. China uses different means to incentivize the participation of farmers, including financial support in the form of subsidies and tenure reform. The intention is to further increase the forest area and also integrate forest carbon into China’s national emissions trading system pilot programme.
Urban environment
Brazil
Policy support and frameworks
City-level strategies, action plans and regulations to promote low-carbon, climate-resilient development aimed at the mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and adaptation to climate
Energy efficiency/Buildings
China
Policy support and frameworks
City-level strategies, action plans and regulations to promote low-carbon, climate-resilient development aimed at the mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and adaptation to climate
Urban environment
Japan
Policy support and frameworks
City-level strategies, action plans and regulations to promote low-carbon, climate-resilient development aimed at the mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and adaptation to climate
Urban environment
New Zealand
Policy support and frameworks
City-level strategies, action plans and regulations to promote low-carbon, climate-resilient development aimed at the mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and adaptation to climate
Urban environment
South Africa
Policy support and frameworks
City-level strategies, action plans and regulations to promote low-carbon, climate-resilient development aimed at the mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and adaptation to climate
Urban environment
Sweden
Policy support and frameworks
City-level strategies, action plans and regulations to promote low-carbon, climate-resilient development aimed at the mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and adaptation to climate
In the 1960s, Malmo was an industrial city close to bankruptcy. Its sole economic activity was a shipyard, and the industry was in decline. The city took a bold step to transition from an industrial city to a community of information and knowledge, turning the shipyard into a sustainable housing development. Today, more jobs have been created than during the whole period during which it was a shipyard. The success of the transition proves that challenging transformations can take place in a short amount of time and with minimal resources. Under the leadership of the Swedish national government, Malmo has continued to develop as a sustainable city. A number of key policies are providing the frameworks for continued transformational activity in Malmo, including: the local Agenda 21 programme; the Environmental Programme; and the Urban Development Master Plan (2014–2032). Some of the objectives of the city include carbon neutrality by 2022, and 100 per cent renewable energy consumption by 2030. As a result of this transformation, energy consumption will decrease by at least 20 per cent by 2020 and by another 20 per cent by 2030, and GHG emissions will decrease by at least 40 per cent below the 1990 level by 2020. Malmo’s success can be attributed to a number of circumstances. Firstly, the city receives significant guidance and financial support from the Swedish national government. Many policy objectives originate at the national level and are transmitted to the city to be implemented through local policies, plans and regulations. This demonstrates the critical importance of collaboration among different levels of government to innovate policy for sustainable development. At the city level, development plans are shared between all political parties, providing public civil servants with a stable working environment. Further, Malmo has been able to secure financial support through the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme. From 2014 to 2020, EUR 80 billion has been made available to support ‘lighthouse’ projects that drive economic growth and create jobs. Another key aspect is that Malmo is creating an attractive and dynamic business environment in the city. As a result, EUR 1 million of public seed money has been able to attract EUR 200 million in investment from the private sector.
Urban environment
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
City-level strategies, action plans and regulations to promote low-carbon, climate-resilient development aimed at the mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and adaptation to climate
Energy efficiency/District energy systems
Serbia
Policy support and frameworks
Multilevel collaboration and cross-learning among different levels of government, as well as between city/national governments through national and regional programmes
Urban environment
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Policy support and frameworks
Multilevel collaboration and cross-learning among different levels of government, as well as between city/national governments through national and regional programmes
Urban environment
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
Multilevel collaboration and cross-learning among different levels of government, as well as between city/national governments through national and regional programmes
Urban environment
Vietnam
Policy support and frameworks
Multilevel collaboration and cross-learning among different levels of government, as well as between city/national governments through national and regional programmes
The Green Growth Strategy of Viet Nam represents the determination of the national government to drive the transformation of the economy. Specific targets include reducing greenhouse gas emissions, lowering the intensity of gross domestic product (GDP) by 8–10 per cent by 2020 compared to the 2010 level, and reducing BTUs/GDP by 1.0–1.5 per cent per year. In order to achieve these goals, all 63 provinces have been given the mandate to formulate their respective Provincial Green Growth Action Plans that best support the priorities in their cities and rural areas. These will then be integrated into each province’s local five-year and annual Socioeconomic Development Plan.
Urban environment
Philippines
Policy support and frameworks
Support for good governance and leadership by encouraging and recognizing good practice action
Urban environment
Japan
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of compact cities and high-density urbanization with concentrated zoning of areas for services and facilities and housing areas close to transportation hubs
Urban environment
Mexico
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of compact cities and high-density urbanization with concentrated zoning of areas for services and facilities and housing areas close to transportation hubs
Urban environment
Republic of Korea
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of compact cities and high-density urbanization with concentrated zoning of areas for services and facilities and housing areas close to transportation hubs
Urban environment
Australia
Regulatory instruments
Provision of green spaces in the urban environment by integrating green infrastructure with the built environment to respond to mitigation and adaptation needs
Urban environment
Colombia
Policy support and frameworks
Provision of green spaces in the urban environment by integrating green infrastructure with the built environment to respond to mitigation and adaptation needs
Urban environment
Malaysia
Policy support and frameworks
Provision of green spaces in the urban environment by integrating green infrastructure with the built environment to respond to mitigation and adaptation needs
Urban environment
Singapore
Policy support and frameworks
Provision of green spaces in the urban environment by integrating green infrastructure with the built environment to respond to mitigation and adaptation needs
Urban environment
Thailand
Policy support and frameworks
Provision of green spaces in the urban environment by integrating green infrastructure with the built environment to respond to mitigation and adaptation needs
Energy efficiency/Transport
Argentina
Policy support and frameworks
Increased non-motorized and public transportation routes and access by shifting away from motorized modes of transport and individual vehicles within the framework of sustainable urban transport
Energy efficiency/Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
Increased non-motorized and public transportation routes and access by shifting away from motorized modes of transport and individual vehicles within the framework of sustainable urban transport
Energy efficiency/Transport
India
Policy support and frameworks
Increased non-motorized and public transportation routes and access by shifting away from motorized modes of transport and individual vehicles within the framework of sustainable urban transport
Energy efficiency/Transport
Indonesia
Policy support and frameworks
Increased non-motorized and public transportation routes and access by shifting away from motorized modes of transport and individual vehicles within the framework of sustainable urban transport
Energy efficiency/Transport
Peru
Policy support and frameworks
Increased non-motorized and public transportation routes and access by shifting away from motorized modes of transport and individual vehicles within the framework of sustainable urban transport
Energy efficiency/Transport
Republic of Korea
Policy support and frameworks
Increased non-motorized and public transportation routes and access by shifting away from motorized modes of transport and individual vehicles within the framework of sustainable urban transport
Urban environment
Brazil
Economic and fiscal instruments
Enhancements in the provision of urban ecosystem services to increase the adaptive capacity of cities by providing an incentive mechanism for adaptation to climate change
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Canada
Regulatory instruments
Promotion of energy efficiency in buildings through building sector development strategies and regulations
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Germany
Regulatory instruments
Promotion of energy efficiency in buildings through building sector development strategies and regulations
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Philippines
Regulatory instruments
Promotion of energy efficiency in buildings through building sector development strategies and regulations
Energy efficiency/Buildings
France
Regulatory instruments
Promotion of energy efficiency in buildings through building sector development strategies and regulations
Energy efficiency/Transport
European Union
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion and improvement of efficiency of mass passenger and freight transportation systems
Energy efficiency/Transport
Brazil
Economic and fiscal instruments
Promotion and improvement of efficiency of mass passenger and freight transportation systems
Energy efficiency/Transport
Czech Republic
Economic and fiscal instruments
Promotion and improvement of efficiency of mass passenger and freight transportation systems
Energy efficiency/Transport
Estonia
Economic and fiscal instruments
Promotion and improvement of efficiency of mass passenger and freight transportation systems
Energy efficiency/Transport
France
Economic and fiscal instruments
Promotion and improvement of efficiency of mass passenger and freight transportation systems
Energy efficiency/Transport
Germany
Economic and fiscal instruments
Promotion and improvement of efficiency of mass passenger and freight transportation systems
Energy efficiency/Transport
United States of America
Economic and fiscal instruments
Promotion and improvement of efficiency of mass passenger and freight transportation systems
Energy efficiency/Transport
Netherlands
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion and improvement of efficiency of mass passenger and freight transportation systems
Energy efficiency/Transport
Norway
Economic and fiscal instruments
Promotion and improvement of efficiency of mass passenger and freight transportation systems
Energy efficiency/Transport
South Africa, Cape Town
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion and improvement of efficiency of mass passenger and freight transportation systems
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
Brazil
Economic and fiscal instruments
Integrated solid waste management plans/wastewater treatment
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
China
Policy support and frameworks
Integrated solid waste management plans/wastewater treatment
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
El Salvador
Economic and fiscal instruments
Integrated solid waste management plans/wastewater treatment
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
Poland
Policy support and frameworks
Integrated solid waste management plans/wastewater treatment
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
Ukraine
Policy support and frameworks
Integrated solid waste management plans/wastewater treatment
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
United Republic of Tanzania
Policy support and frameworks
Integrated solid waste management plans/wastewater treatment
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
Ghana
Policy support and frameworks
Organic waste composting
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
Indonesia
Policy support and frameworks
Organic waste composting
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
Malaysia
Policy support and frameworks
Organic waste composting
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
Thailand
Policy support and frameworks
Organic waste composting
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
Japan
Policy support and frameworks
Wastewater recycling
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
Mexico
Policy support and frameworks
Wastewater recycling
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
Singapore
Policy support and frameworks
Wastewater recycling
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
South Africa
Policy support and frameworks
Wastewater recycling
Urban environment
Brazil
Policy support and frameworks
Improving municipal financial management and creditworthiness of cities
Urban environment
Malawi
Policy support and frameworks
Improving municipal financial management and creditworthiness of cities
Urban environment
Uganda
Policy support and frameworks
Improving municipal financial management and creditworthiness of cities
The World Bank, through its Public–Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility’s City Creditworthiness Initiative, is supporting a large number of cities and is committed to making 350 cities around the world creditworthy. It is also assisting them to implement plans that would facilitate the flow of low-cost finance. The city of Kampala has embarked on this programme to improve its financial sustainability. The city was able to restructure and improve its Treasury management systems and put in place a new accounting manual. As a result, revenue collections increased by 110 per cent in a period of three years. The city also completed a review of its asset register, which established that fixed assets had been undervalued by 800 per cent. The increased revenue, coupled with prudent financial management, helped the city to finance projects such as the introduction of eco-stoves, solar street lighting, flood-proofing, recycling of drainage water, waste to energy projects, overhauling the transport system through the introduction of a bus rapid transit (BRT) system, and increasing green space. Public–private partnership is central to the operation of the BRT system, the waste to energy and street-lighting projects. Resilience to climate change impacts has been incorporated into all infrastructure design projects. To address congestion in the city, in addition to putting in place the BRT system, the city also plans to develop satellite towns around Kampala to avoid the need for commuters to travel into the city. Currently, the city’s daytime population is 4 million, while the night-time population is 2 million, which means that 2 million people commute into the city to work.
Urban environment
India
Economic and fiscal instruments
Introduction of special direct subsidies or financing mechanisms to finance low-carbon urban infrastructure
Urban environment
Germany
Economic and fiscal instruments
Introduction of special direct subsidies or financing mechanisms to finance low-carbon urban infrastructure
Urban environment
Brazil
Policy support and frameworks
Introduction of innovative economic instruments to attract climate-friendly investments
Urban environment
Canada
Economic and fiscal instruments
Introduction of innovative economic instruments to attract climate-friendly investments
Urban environment
Japan
Economic and fiscal instruments
Introduction of innovative economic instruments to attract climate-friendly investments
Launched in April 2010, the Tokyo cap-and-trade programme requires carbon dioxide emission reductions from large commercial, government and industrial buildings through one of the following two ways:
a) On-site energy efficiency measures;
b) Participation in the emissions trading scheme.
The city authorities established a carbon price and prioritized the flow of financing to low-carbon initiatives. This is the world’s first urban cap-and trade programme. The programme accounts for 20 per cent of Tokyo’s total greenhouse gas emissions and aims to reduce emissions by 25 per cent by 2020 compared with the 2000 level. To date, the system has been remarkably effective in reducing emissions, with some of the participating facilities not only exceeding their target for the first compliance period (2010–2014), but 70 per cent of them already meeting the target for the second compliance period (2015–2019). The astounding success of Tokyo’s cap-and-trade programme provides compelling evidence that this emerging innovative instrument can be used by cities to achieve major emission reductions. Recently, the Tokyo metropolitan government proposed a nationwide cap-and-trade programme to the Japanese Government, thereby demonstrating that cities can be climate-action leaders and increase the ambitions of national governments to take aggressive mitigation actions.
Urban environment
Thailand
Economic and fiscal instruments
Introduction of innovative economic instruments to attract climate-friendly investments
Energy efficiency/Transport
United Kingdom
Economic and fiscal instruments
Introduction of innovative economic instruments to attract climate-friendly investments
Urban environment
United States of America
Economic and fiscal instruments
Introduction of innovative economic instruments to attract climate-friendly investments
Urban environment
Myanmar
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of new approaches to public–private partnerships to leverage financing from the private sector
Urban environment
Economic and fiscal instruments
Promotion of new approaches to public–private partnerships to leverage financing from the private sector
Urban environment
India
Economic and fiscal instruments
Promotion of new approaches to public–private partnerships to leverage financing from the private sector
Urban environment
South Africa
Economic and fiscal instruments
Promotion of new approaches to public–private partnerships to leverage financing from the private sector
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
Bangladesh
Policy support and frameworks
Targeted programmes of national governments providing support for skills and knowledge development
Urban environment
Nepal
Policy support and frameworks
Targeted programmes of national governments providing support for skills and knowledge development
Carbon capture
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
Norway
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
South Africa
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
Australia
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
Canada
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
China
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
European Union
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
Japan
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
Norway
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
Republic of Korea
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
United Arab Emirates
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
Australia
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
China
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
CCS Road Map, supporting deployment of carbon capture and storage in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Department of Energy and Climate Change of the United Kingdom, 2012.
Carbon capture
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Department of Energy/National Energy Technology Laboratory, 2010.
Carbon capture
Canada
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Natural Resources Canada. 2006.
Carbon capture
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Scottish Government and Scottish Enterprise. 2010.
Carbon capture
Romania
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
BEST, Bellona Environmental CCS Team. 2012.
Carbon capture
Poland
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
BEST, Bellona Environmental CCS Team. 2011.
Carbon capture
Hungary
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
BEST, Bellona Environmental CCS Team. 2011.
Carbon capture
Netherlands
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
2014. CATO research programme.
Carbon capture
South Africa
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
South African Centre for Carbon Capture and Storage
Carbon capture
Mexico
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
2014. Secretaría de Energía de México and Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales
Carbon capture
Republic of Korea
Policy support and frameworks
Scoping and agenda setting
Carbon capture
Netherlands
Policy support and frameworks
Strengthening institutional arrangements and legal and regulatory frameworks
The Global CCS Institute has performed an extensive review of the permitting process of the (planned) CCS demonstration projects in the Netherlands.
Carbon capture
Regulatory instruments
Strengthening institutional arrangements and legal and regulatory frameworks
The European Union’s CCS directive (2009/31/EC) is an example of Europe’s strengthening of the regulatory framework for CCS
Carbon capture
China
Policy support and frameworks
Strengthening institutional arrangements and legal and regulatory frameworks
Carbon capture
Indonesia
Policy support and frameworks
Strengthening institutional arrangements and legal and regulatory frameworks
Carbon capture
Malaysia
Policy support and frameworks
Strengthening institutional arrangements and legal and regulatory frameworks
Carbon capture
Mexico
Policy support and frameworks
Strengthening institutional arrangements and legal and regulatory frameworks
Carbon capture
Philippines
Policy support and frameworks
Strengthening institutional arrangements and legal and regulatory frameworks
Carbon capture
Republic of Korea
Policy support and frameworks
Strengthening institutional arrangements and legal and regulatory frameworks
Carbon capture
Thailand
Policy support and frameworks
Strengthening institutional arrangements and legal and regulatory frameworks
Carbon capture
Vietnam
Policy support and frameworks
Strengthening institutional arrangements and legal and regulatory frameworks
Carbon capture
Canada
Economic and fiscal instruments
Project demontration support
Carbon capture
China
Research and development
R&D policy
Carbon capture
European Union
Research and development
R&D policy
Public R&D funding via framework programmes and Horizon 2020. Demonstration project funding via New Entrants’ Reserve (NER) 300 (which was renewed in October 2014 re-named as the NER400) programme and European Energy Programme for Recovery
Carbon capture
Norway
Research and development
R&D policy
Carbon capture
United Arab Emirates
Research and development
Project demontration support
Carbon capture
United Kingdom
Research and development
Project demontration support
Carbon capture
United States of America
Research and development
Project demontration support
Carbon capture
Australia
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial instruments for the deployment of CCS/CCUS
Australia, Canada, Japan and the United States of America are together responsible for 75 per cent of cumulative public funding from 1974 to 2011
Carbon capture
Canada
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial instruments for the deployment of CCS/CCUS
Australia, Canada, Japan and the United States of America are together responsible for 75 per cent of cumulative public funding from 1974 to 2012
Carbon capture
Japan
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial instruments for the deployment of CCS/CCUS
Australia, Canada, Japan and the United States of America are together responsible for 75 per cent of cumulative public funding from 1974 to 2013
Carbon capture
United States of America
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial instruments for the deployment of CCS/CCUS
Australia, Canada, Japan and the United States of America are together responsible for 75 per cent of cumulative public funding from 1974 to 2014
Carbon capture
Canada
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial instruments for the deployment of CCS/CCUS
Carbon capture
Japan
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial instruments for the deployment of CCS/CCUS
Carbon capture
European Union
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial instruments for the deployment of CCS/CCUS
Carbon capture
Norway
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial instruments for the deployment of CCS/CCUS
Carbon capture
United Kingdom
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial instruments for the deployment of CCS/CCUS
Carbon capture
United States of America
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial instruments for the deployment of CCS/CCUS
Carbon capture
Canada
Regulatory instruments
Regulating instruments for the deployment of CCS/CCUS
Carbon capture
European Union
Regulatory instruments
Regulating instruments for the deployment of CCS/CCUS
Carbon capture
United Kingdom
Regulatory instruments
Regulating instruments for the deployment of CCS/CCUS
Carbon capture
United States of America
Regulatory instruments
Regulating instruments for the deployment of CCS/CCUS
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Energy
Australia
Economic and fiscal instruments
Degasification and recovery of methane from venting in coal mines
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Energy
Mexico
Research and development
Degasification and recovery of methane from venting in coal mines
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Energy
India
Research and development
Degasification and recovery of methane from venting in coal mines
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Energy
United States of America
Research and development
Degasification and recovery of methane from venting in coal mines
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Energy
Russia
Other
Reduction of gas leakage from transmission pipelines
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Agriculture
Australia
Economic and fiscal instruments
Livestock management, including feeding and breeding practices
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Agriculture
European Union
Policy support and frameworks
Livestock management, including feeding and breeding practices
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Agriculture
New Zealand
Research and development
Livestock management, including feeding and breeding practices
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Agriculture
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
Sustainable manure management, including through on-farm manure management systems, better application methods and treatment technologies
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Agriculture
China
Policy support and frameworks
Intermittent aeration of continuously flooded rice paddies
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Agriculture
Philippines
Policy support and frameworks
Intermittent aeration of continuously flooded rice paddies
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
European Union
Regulatory instruments
Integrated waste management
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
South Africa
Regulatory instruments
Integrated waste management
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
Germany
Regulatory instruments
Waste reduction, recycling and reuse
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
Australia
Economic and fiscal instruments
Landfill management, including methane capture and energy recovery for heat and electricity generation
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
Mexico
Voluntary approaches
Landfill management, including methane capture and energy recovery for heat and electricity generation
Non-CO2 GHGs/CH4/Waste
United States of America
Regulatory instruments
Landfill management, including methane capture and energy recovery for heat and electricity generation
Non-CO2 GHGs/N2O/Industry
Brazil
Economic and fiscal instruments
Reducing N2O emissions from industry through financial incentives, mechanisms and voluntary agreements
Non-CO2 GHGs/N2O/Industry
European Union
Economic and fiscal instruments
Reducing N2O emissions from industry through financial incentives, mechanisms and voluntary agreements
Non-CO2 GHGs/N2O/Industry
United States of America
Voluntary approaches
Reducing N2O emissions from industry through financial incentives, mechanisms and voluntary agreements
Non-CO2 GHGs/N2O/Industry
Netherlands
Policy support and frameworks
Reducing N2O emissions from industry through financial incentives, mechanisms and voluntary agreements
Non-CO2 GHGs/N2O/Agriculture
Indonesia
Policy support and frameworks
Integrated sustainable land management
Non-CO2 GHGs/N2O/Agriculture
China
Policy support and frameworks
Efficient use of nitrogen fertilizers through regulations and training of farmers
Non-CO2 GHGs/N2O/Agriculture
European Union
Regulatory instruments
Efficient use of nitrogen fertilizers through regulations and training of farmers
Non-CO2 GHGs/N2O/Agriculture
New Zealand
Research and development
Efficient use of nitrogen fertilizers through regulations and training of farmers
Non-CO2 GHGs/N2O/Agriculture
Canada
Economic and fiscal instruments
Reducing N2O emissions from soils through financial incentives
Non-CO2 GHGs/N2O/Agriculture
Sweden
Economic and fiscal instruments
Reducing N2O emissions from soils through financial incentives
Non-CO2 GHGs/F-gases
Denmark
Economic and fiscal instruments
Creation of market conditions for technology development, transfer and deployment of climate-friendly alternatives to high global warming potential (GWP) hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
Non-CO2 GHGs/F-gases
European Union
Regulatory instruments
Creation of market conditions for technology development, transfer and deployment of climate-friendly alternatives to high global warming potential (GWP) hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
Non-CO2 GHGs/F-gases
Norway
Regulatory instruments
Creation of market conditions for technology development, transfer and deployment of climate-friendly alternatives to high global warming potential (GWP) hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
Non-CO2 GHGs/F-gases
Spain
Economic and fiscal instruments
Creation of market conditions for technology development, transfer and deployment of climate-friendly alternatives to high global warming potential (GWP) hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
Non-CO2 GHGs/F-gases
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
Creation of market conditions for technology development, transfer and deployment of climate-friendly alternatives to high global warming potential (GWP) hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
Non-CO2 GHGs/F-gases
European Union
Regulatory instruments
Responsible management of existing equipment and better design of future equipment in order to minimize leaks
Non-CO2 GHGs/F-gases
Japan
Regulatory instruments
Responsible management of existing equipment and better design of future equipment in order to minimize leaks
Non-CO2 GHGs/F-gases
United States of America
Voluntary approaches
Responsible management of existing equipment and better design of future equipment in order to minimize leaks
Non-CO2 GHGs/F-gases
China
Policy support and frameworks
Encouraging uptake of climate-friendly alternatives to reduce reliance on high-GWP HFCs
Non-CO2 GHGs/F-gases
European Union
Regulatory instruments
Encouraging uptake of climate-friendly alternatives to reduce reliance on high-GWP HFCs
Non-CO2 GHGs/F-gases
United States of America
Voluntary approaches
Encouraging uptake of climate-friendly alternatives to reduce reliance on high-GWP HFCs
Energy efficiency/Crosscutting
China
Regulatory instruments
Standards and labelling (S&L) programmes
Energy efficiency/Crosscutting
European Union
Regulatory instruments
Standards and labelling (S&L) programmes
Energy efficiency/Crosscutting
Ghana
Regulatory instruments
Standards and labelling (S&L) programmes
Energy efficiency/Crosscutting
Philippines
India
Regulatory instruments
Standards and labelling (S&L) programmes
India’s standards and labelling programme was successful in
creating a ‘brand’ for energy-efficient appliances that were seen as ‘superior’. Key factors that contributed to the success of the programme included:
• Assertive marketing that was ultimately adopted by the manufacturers;
• Combining mandatory and voluntary labelling approaches;
• Regular adjustmentor tightening of standards associated with labels to ensure
progress;
• Testing of labelled products;
• Choosing appropriate products to label in relation to the payback period, given
that appliances with payback periods of greater than five years are often not
successfully marketed through labelling programmes.
Energy efficiency/Crosscutting
Japan
Regulatory instruments
Standards and labelling (S&L) programmes
Energy efficiency/Crosscutting
United States of America
Regulatory instruments
Standards and labelling (S&L) programmes
Energy efficiency/Crosscutting
Denmark
Economic and fiscal instruments
Energy performance standards (EPS) and obligations (including trading schemes)
Denmark is among the world leaders in action on energy efficiency (EE), investing heavily in the sector since the global oil price shocks in the 1970s. Denmark expanded its conservation target in 2012 to reduce energy use by 12 per cent by 2020. To support that target, Denmark has implemented a number of successful and cost-effective
policies and actions. The Danish Ministry of Climate, Energy and Building collaborated with trade associations that encompass over 450 energy distribution companies (including oil, natural gas, heating and electricity) to negotiate a pact that establishes a national annual energy savings goal of approximately 3,000 GWt/hour for 2014 and 3,400 GWt/hour for 2015 (an increase of 75 per cent on a previous agreement). Under the pact, each sector is allocated a share of the reduction obligations, which are then distributed to trade association member companies on the basis of market share. When companies reduce energy use (through financial or technical support), they receive credit for the energy savings, which can then be sold to other companies. The national energy saving goals associated with the programme have been exceeded every year since 2007. The programme has also spurred the development of a number of energy servicing companies to support energy savings. Key factors contributing to the success of the programme include:
• Cost-neutrality for the utilities involved, as spending on energy savings is passed along to the customer through tariffs, sending a price signal associated with energy efficiency;
• Flexibility for sectors to meet targets at the aggregate level in the most efficient way, meaning that there are no requirements for energy savings at the company, just at the sector level.
Energy efficiency/Crosscutting
India
Economic and fiscal instruments
Energy performance standards (EPS) and obligations (including trading schemes)
India adopted Specific Energy Consumption Targets for energy-intensive sectors of the economy, under which Energy Savings Certificates can be traded and penalties will be enforced for noncompliance.
Energy efficiency/Crosscutting
Japan
Economic and fiscal instruments
Energy performance standards (EPS) and obligations (including trading schemes)
Oil crises in the 1970s led Japan to take significant action on EE, resulting in a 40 per cent improvement in EE (based on primary energy use per unit of gross domestic product) and making Japan a global leader in EE. Japan’s Energy Conservation Policy provides a strong example of a comprehensive set of actions to support EE, combining regulatory and incentive-based measures. The private sector is central to the framework, as policies are designed to ensure business action through minimum energy performance standards, namely the Top Runner Program, requirements to designate energy managers, and regular reporting, among other actions. Peer pressure among private entities has also played a major role in supporting successful outcomes.
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Denmark
Regulatory instruments
Building standards and codes
Denmark implemented new building codes, with a target of reducing energy use by 70 per cent by 2020. The codes incorporate a number of dynamic elements that are regularly updated to reflect changes in the market, technology, etc. Announcements of updates are made very early to allow industry to prepare and adapt. Denmark highlighted enforcement as a key aspect to ensure the success of building code policies. It also supports voluntary agreements with industry that include energy management actions and implementing cost-effective projects that are incentivized by CO2 tax rebates.
Energy efficiency/Buildings
France
Regulatory instruments
Building standards and codes
Energy efficiency/Buildings
India
Regulatory instruments
Building standards and codes
India has adopted EE building codes in the commercial sector, which offers the greatest potential for savings. However, progress is still needed to incorporate the codes
at the subnational level and to strengthen overall enforcement.
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Netherlands
Economic and fiscal instruments
Building standards and codes
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Singapore
Regulatory instruments
Building standards and codes
With a focus on long-term action on EE Singapore developed a Green Building Master Plan, with the goal of 80 per cent ‘Green Mark’ certification of buildings by 2030. The initiative certifies buildings in relation to energy and water efficiency, indoor environmental quality, green space integration and the use of eco-friendly materials for construction, and emphasizes high standards for measurement and verification. The programme has already exceeded the target for 2014, with more than 25 per cent of buildings expected to be certified by the end of 2014, making Singapore a global leader in green building certification. With all existing large public-sector buildings on target to reach the ‘Green Mark Gold’ rating by 2020 and all new public construction mandated to have a ‘Green Mark Platinum’ rating, Singapore’s public sector represents a strong model for replication in other sectors. Incentives implemented to encourage the private sector to follow the model have been very successful in attracting private investment. In addition to building certification, Singapore has regulations in place for energy consumption in buildings and mandates regular energy audits. It also engages in a number of international initiatives to support the transformation of EE.
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Tunisia
Regulatory instruments
Building standards and codes
Energy efficiency/Transport
Brazil
Regulatory instruments
Fuel efficiency standards
Energy efficiency/Transport
Canada
Regulatory instruments
Fuel efficiency standards
Energy efficiency/Transport
European Union
Regulatory instruments
Fuel efficiency standards
Energy efficiency/Transport
Japan
Regulatory instruments
Fuel efficiency standards
Energy efficiency/Transport
Mexico
Regulatory instruments
Fuel efficiency standards
Energy efficiency/Transport
South Korea
Regulatory instruments
Fuel efficiency standards
Energy efficiency/Lighting
Colombia
Regulatory instruments
Lighting measures
The Colombian National Development Plan highlights the need for reliable, high-quality and environmentally sustainable energy provision to support economic
development. Aligned with that overarching priority, Colombia’s comprehensive energy efficiency (EE) policy Programme on Rational and Efficient Use of Energy and Other Forms of Non-Conventional Energy supports a number of EE-related actions in the residential, industrial, transport, commercial and public sectors. EE-related activities in Colombia are also closely aligned with the country’s Low Carbon Development Strategy (ECDBC) and, specifically, the Sectoral Mitigation Action Plan (SMAP) for the electricity sector. In relation to EE, the action plan focuses on both demand-side EE and the efficiency of the national energy system. Integration of EE-related actions with ECDBC and SMAP helps to facilitate cross-ministerial and collaborative support for EErelation action and to ensure alignment with the country’s broader development and climate goals
Energy efficiency/Lighting
Ghana
Regulatory instruments
Lighting measures
Energy efficiency/Crosscutting
Japan
Economic and fiscal instruments
Incentives and subsidies
Energy efficiency/Crosscutting
Netherlands
Economic and fiscal instruments
Incentives and subsidies
Energy efficiency/Crosscutting
South Africa
Economic and fiscal instruments
Incentives and subsidies
Energy efficiency/Crosscutting
United States of America
Economic and fiscal instruments
Incentives and subsidies
Energy efficiency/Crosscutting
Colombia
Policy support and frameworks
Comprehensive national energy efficiency policy framework
The Colombian National Development Plan highlights the need for reliable, high-quality and environmentally sustainable energy provision to support economic
development. Aligned with that overarching priority, Colombia’s comprehensive energy efficiency (EE) policy Programme on Rational and Efficient Use of Energy and Other Forms of Non-Conventional Energy supports a number of EE-related actions in the residential, industrial, transport, commercial and public sectors. EE-related activities in Colombia are also closely aligned with the country’s Low Carbon Development Strategy (ECDBC) and, specifically, the Sectoral Mitigation Action Plan (SMAP) for the electricity sector. In relation to EE, the action plan focuses on both demand-side EE and the efficiency of the national energy system. Integration of EE-related actions with ECDBC and SMAP helps to facilitate cross-ministerial and collaborative support for EErelation action and to ensure alignment with the country’s broader development and climate goals
Renewable Energy
China
Policy support and frameworks
High-level policy frameworks and integrated action plans
Renewable Energy
Colombia
Policy support and frameworks
High-level policy frameworks and integrated action plans
Renewable Energy
European Union
Policy support and frameworks
High-level policy frameworks and integrated action plans
Renewable Energy
Indonesia
Policy support and frameworks
High-level policy frameworks and integrated action plans
Renewable Energy
Kenya
Policy support and frameworks
High-level policy frameworks and integrated action plans
Kenya, a country with significant technical RE potential, recognizes the importance of RE diffusion to support energy security, employment and income generation (especially in rural areas), improved trade balance and climate change mitigation. Kenya supports RE through a number of policies and plans, including: the Constitution of Kenya, the Vision 2030 development plan, the National Climate Change Action Plan, the 2006 Energy Act, the
Geothermal Resources Act, various feed-in tariffs to support investment in RE, and regulations related to solar water heating, energy management, cook stoves, etc. A number of government institutions support action on those policies and plans, highlighting the need for effective intergovernmental coordination to support RE as well as the need for engagement and coordination with the private sector. Taken as a whole, the policies provide
a strong institutional and political framework for RE deployment in the country. The mix of policies and plans also highlights the need for a portfolio of actions, rather than reliance on a single ‘silver bullet’ to support robust RE deployment.
Renewable Energy
Philippines
Policy support and frameworks
High-level policy frameworks and integrated action plans
The Philippines adopted a long-term Energy Plan that integrates RE-related actions with broader resource planning and supports key national priorities focused on energy security and sustainable development. In alignment with the Energy Plan, the
Renewable Energy Act and National Renewable Energy Programme seek to triple RE capacity to 15,304 MW by 2030. The Philippines’ Renewable Energy Act is also closely aligned with the country’s broader Climate Change Act and National Climate Change
Action Plan for 2011–2028, supporting integrated and coordinated action across the Government.
Renewable Energy
United Kingdom
Policy support and frameworks
High-level policy frameworks and integrated action plans
Renewable Energy
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
High-level policy frameworks and integrated action plans
Renewable Energy
China
Policy support and frameworks
RE targets (quotas and renewable portfolio standards)
China currently has the greatest installed renewable energy (RE) capacity in the world, with 556 GW in 2012 (increasing by 13 per cent between 2000 and 2012), and expects to build on that success with a target of 15 per cent non-fossil primary energy by
2020. To that end, China established a portfolio of laws and regulations under its Renewable Energy Law, which includes national RE targets, mandatory RE grid access, electricity
pricing policies and special RE funds. The law is complemented by a number of actions, including annual RE plans and goals, distributed and off-grid RE for rural areas, and pilot projects. RE policies in China couple both incentives and standards to support RE deployment, such as feed-in tariffs, technical codes for solar water heaters and biodiesel blend standards. China’s policy portfolio resulted in a doubling of emission reductions associated with RE between 2005 and 2012.
Renewable Energy
European Union
Policy support and frameworks
RE targets (quotas and renewable portfolio standards)
The European Union’s 2020 Climate and Energy Package sets out the 20-20-20 targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20 per cent (from the 1990 level), increase RE consumption by 20 per cent and improve energy efficiency (EE) by 20 per cent by 2020. To support key development goals, the RE and EE targets are projected to produce approximately 817,000 jobs by 2020. To achieve these targets, the European Union is supporting four key legislative actions: the reform of the European Union Emissions
Trading System (EU ETS); national targets to reduce emissions not covered by the EU ETS (such as those from agriculture, housing, waste and transport); national RE targets; and carbon capture and storage. In addition, the European Union has offered to reduce emissions even more significantly (up to 30 per cent) given similar commitments by the international community.
Renewable Energy
Germany
Policy support and frameworks
RE targets (quotas and renewable portfolio standards)
Renewable Energy
India
Policy support and frameworks
RE targets (quotas and renewable portfolio standards)
Renewable Energy
Marshall Islands
Policy support and frameworks
RE targets (quotas and renewable portfolio standards)
In 2009 the Marshall Islands was 90 per cent dependent on imported fossil fuel, representing 20 per cent of the national budget expenditure and leading to an energy crisis that year. To address that key national challenge, the National Energy Policy
was adopted, leading to incremental, yet significant, progress over the next five years. Specifically, the outer island solar project set a target of 100 per cent RE electrification and resulted in 95 per cent solar electrification of all outer island public facilities and
households. Building on that success, the country adopted a target for the rest of the island of 20 per cent RE electrification by 2020 from solar photovoltaics, biofuels and wind energy, with a major focus on grid-connected solar. The country is making significant
progress towards meeting that target.
Renewable Energy
Morocco
Policy support and frameworks
RE targets (quotas and renewable portfolio standards)
Renewable Energy
Philippines
Policy support and frameworks
RE targets (quotas and renewable portfolio standards)
Renewable Energy
South Africa
Policy support and frameworks
RE targets (quotas and renewable portfolio standards)
Renewable Energy
Spain
Policy support and frameworks
RE targets (quotas and renewable portfolio standards)
Renewable Energy
Germany
Economic and fiscal instruments
Feed-in tariffs (FiTs)
Renewable Energy
Kenya
Economic and fiscal instruments
Feed-in tariffs (FiTs)
Renewable Energy
United Kingdom
Economic and fiscal instruments
Feed-in tariffs (FiTs)
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland has a legally binding commitment to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 80 per cent by 2050. Renewable electricity production is expanding rapidly to help meet that commitment, with 350 per
cent growth from 2003 to 2012. However, even in the light of such rapid expansion, there is still a need for massive investment in the renewable energy (RE) sector to meet mitigation and energy security goals under the Electricity Market Reform Programme.
The United Kingdom established an innovative pricing mechanism called Contracts for Difference (CfD) to reduce investment risk associated with RE projects by providing greater stability and certainty in relation to revenue. The mechanism allows RE
generators to receive a fixed or ‘strike’ price for RE electricity production. Under that approach, revenues are stabilized within a predetermined range for the period of the contract and when the electricity market price is higher or lower than the strike price the
generator either receives the difference in payment or pays back the difference. The CfD structure increases efficiency by addressing market issues associated with bidding electricity when market prices are negative and supports revenue certainty for the
generator, thus addressing key economic barriers to RE deployment.
Renewable Energy
United States of America
Economic and fiscal instruments
Feed-in tariffs (FiTs)
Renewable Energy
Cameroon
Economic and fiscal instruments
Tax incentives (industry/production, personal, property and sales)
Renewable Energy
India
Economic and fiscal instruments
Tax incentives (industry/production, personal, property and sales)
Renewable Energy
Ireland
Economic and fiscal instruments
Tax incentives (industry/production, personal, property and sales)
Renewable Energy
Nicaragua
Economic and fiscal instruments
Tax incentives (industry/production, personal, property and sales)
Renewable Energy
United States of America
Economic and fiscal instruments
Tax incentives (industry/production, personal, property and sales)
Renewable Energy
Germany
Policy support and frameworks
RE grid integration measures
Under Germany’s Renewable Energy (RE) Sources Act, RE is guaranteed grid access and given priority for transmission and distribution. Grid access is supported by technology-specific 20-year feed-in tariffs, with grid operators equalizing additional
costs associated with RE electricity across all electricity consumers (excluding energyintensive industries). Monitoring and evaluation play a key role in assessing the performance of the Renewable Energy Sources Act. Given the success thereof, Germany highlighted electricity system volatility as a major challenge for the future, as RE is expected to meet nearly 100 per cent of electricity demand by 2022. To address that challenge, Germany is investing in innovative measures to increase flexibility in electricity system supply and demand.
Renewable Energy
Mexico
Policy support and frameworks
RE grid integration measures
Renewable Energy
South Africa
Policy support and frameworks
RE grid integration measures
Renewable Energy
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
RE grid integration measures
Renewable Energy
United States of America
Research and development
Supporting the reduction in cost of renewable energy technologies
Renewable energy (RE) capacity in the United States has doubled since 2008, bringing the total to 86 GW (not including hydro). Building on that progress, the United States is seeking to expand clean energy electricity to 80 per cent of energy generated and to increase the cost-competitiveness of RE technologies. Solar power in the United States has experienced notable success, with an approximately 60 per cent annual growth rate nd an 80 per cent reduction in price over the last four years, providing broad benefits to the global community. Supporting solar power from a systemic and integrated perspective, the United States Department of nergy’s SunShot Initiative is a major contributor to such success, focusing on all stages of RE diffusion from research and development (R&D) to deployment. Specifically, the programme supports R&D in relation to solar photovoltaics and concentrating solar polar, systems and grid integration analysis, technology development and advancing innovation in domestic manufacturing. The programme seeks to address key challenges ssociated with RE technologies by engaging stakeholders in innovative ways of supporting the reduction of ‘soft’ (finance and other nonhardware) costs, minimizing grid integration costs through the development of new technologies, and supporting manufacturer competitiveness by developing partnerships with state and local governments and industry. Since 2011 the price of solar power has dropped from 21 cents to 11 cents/kWh and SunShot Initiative has a goal of continuing to reduce the price of solar electricity to 6 cents/kWh by 2020.
Renewable Energy
Ethiopia
Policy support and frameworks
Aligning action with national circumstances and development goals
Action on renewable energy (RE) in Ethiopia is closely connected with the country’s Climate Resilient Green Economy Strategy, which emphasizes economic growth, poverty reduction and adapting to climate change as key development priorities.
Importantly, Ethiopia seeks to move from being an agriculturally focused least developed country to a middle-income country with a flourishing industrial sector and zero net carbon emissions. To meet those sustainable development goals, Ethiopia is pursuing a number of RE policies and actions focused on hydro, wind and geothermal development. Hydro currently makes up a large portion of grid-connected RE in Ethiopia; however, to address the adaptation goals noted above, Ethiopia is diversifying its electricity sector to also include wind and geothermal through public and private investments, while also continuing investment in select hydro projects. Another key development goal for the country is to
expand energy access, as only 20 per cent of the population is currently connected to the grid. Ethiopia seeks to expand the grid to reach all rural households within approximately 20 years, while currently supporting small-scale off-grid renewables and efficient cook-stove programmes. Ethiopia is also investing in biofuel development and implemented fossil fuel subsidy reform in 2008 to support the expansion of renewables and broader sustainable development goals.
Renewable Energy
Saudi Arabia
Policy support and frameworks
Aligning action with national circumstances and development goals
Saudi Arabia’s national circumstances are integral to determining the appropriate mix of RE related actions. Namely, the country’s demographic, geographical and economic context plays a significant role in its energy-related decisions. In addition to
those broader drivers, Saudi Arabia sets its RE-related priorities to align closely with the country’s national development goals, related to sustainable economic growth, job creation, economic diversification, adaptation and water security, among others. The Saudi Arabian Government finds that RE-related choices can complement the hydrocarbon sector in working towards development goals. Saudi Arabia considers mitigation to be a co-benefit of sustainable development and adaptation. The country collaborates with national and international institutions to assess and determine appropriate policy and technology choices that align key economic drivers, RE and national development priorities.
Renewable Energy
Germany
Policy support and frameworks
Integrated and robust renewable energy frameworks
Germany’s comprehensive energy policy framework “Energiewende” encompasses actions on renewable energy (RE) (through the Renewable Energy Sources Act), energy efficiency (through the Energy Efficiency Directive) and grid transformation
(through the Power Line Development Act and Federal Requirement Plan). RE and energy efficiency (EE) related action is also integrated with and supported by the National Climate
Initiative and the Market Incentive Programme. Through that three-tiered approach, Germany seeks to expand cost-efficient renewables, significantly reduce energy consumption (by one half) and support grid flexibility and RE integration. Germany is
currently on the pathway to achieving the ambitious targets that were set for mitigation, RE and EE by 2020 and 2050. “Energiewende” also incorporates policies, targets and other
actions across electricity, heating, transport and research and development. This comprehensive policy approach has led to major successes for the economy and climate. In 2013 RE accounted for approximately 25 per cent of the electricity supply in Germany and led to the mitigation of 147.9 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent. RE is expected to create approximately 600,000 jobs by 2020 and support new entrepreneurship
opportunities.
Land use/Agriculture
New Zealand
Other
Land-use productivity and resilience
About 90 per cent of the agricultural production of New Zealand is exported, generating nearly 56 per cent of the country’s export earnings. This makes both mitigation and adaptation to climate change a very high priority. The focus of mitigation efforts is on increasing the productivity of the agriculture sector while at the same time reducing the emissions per unit of produce (emissions intensity). While absolute emissions from agriculture have increased by 15 per cent since 1990, the emissions intensity has decreased by 20 per cent. This represents a reduction in the global food footprint and has led to important economic benefits at the local level as well as for the national economy. New Zealand seeks to share the skills and expertise gained through the implementation of policies focused on emissions reduction, domestic action, scientific research and innovation, and development programmes. The country actively engages in national and international research and collaboration to scale up the reduction of emissions intensity.
Renewable Energy
European Union
Policy support and frameworks
Interconnection standards
Renewable Energy
Philippines
Policy support and frameworks
Interconnection standards
Renewable Energy
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
Interconnection standards
Renewable Energy
Jamaica
Economic and fiscal instruments
Net metering
Renewable Energy
Seychelles
Economic and fiscal instruments
Net metering
Renewable Energy
United States of America
Economic and fiscal instruments
Net metering
California’s RE capacity has increased twofold since 2010, with the State adding more than 11,000 MW from 2010 to 2014. California’s Renewable Portfolio Standard has provided a critical policy mechanism to support renewable electricity and has been increased over time to align with changing market conditions and to ensure ongoing deployment. To balance electricity supply and demand, California’s utilities have interconnected with States in the region to trade resources efficiently. Distributed generation is another important element of the State’s energy mix and policies such as net metering, distributed generation auctions and a specific high-level goal to reach 12,000 MW distributed generation by 2020 are facilitating expanded deployment. Finally, the State’s cap-and-trade policy is supporting the market-driven development of RE through utilities at the regional level. California’s RE policy package highlights the need for the design and implementation of various complementary policies and actions to achieve strong outcomes in terms of RE deployment.
Renewable Energy
Cabo Verde
Policy support and frameworks
Micro-grid support mechanisms
Renewable Energy
India
Policy support and frameworks
Micro-grid support mechanisms
Renewable Energy
Kenya
Policy support and frameworks
Micro-grid support mechanisms
Energy access in Africa and leading solutions in Kenya
Approximately two thirds of Africa’s population currently lacks access to electricity. In rural areas, the issue is even more pronounced, with only 15 per cent of rural Africans having access to power. However, a significant portion of Africa’s population is expected to live in urban areas by 2050. Through a combination of both distributed generation and large-scale grid-connected renewable energy (RE) projects, a number of countries in the region are leading efforts to address this issue. As one notable example, Kenya’s Lake Turkana Wind Power Project is expected to provide 20 per cent of Kenya’s electricity and fits into a broader national goal to add 5,000 MW power to the grid over the next three years. To further address energy access issues, Kenya’s Rural Electrification Authority is supporting mini-grid deployment in a number of rural areas. In many cases, RE and hybrid RE-diesel systems offer the most economically feasible solutions to accessing energy in rural areas of Kenya.
Renewable Energy
Mali
Policy support and frameworks
Micro-grid support mechanisms
Mali is a leader of mini-grid deployment in Africa. The Government of Mali has supported mini-grids at various levels, resulting in the deployment of more than 160 stand-alone systems throughout the country by 2015. At the highest level, various energy-sector policies, including the Energy Sector Organization Law and National Energy Policy, specifically prioritize energy access and mini-grid development. In addition, and to provide significant institutional support, the Government created the Malian Agency for the Development of Domestic Energy and Rural Electrification (AMADER) as the lead agency for the regulation and support of rural electrification and mini-grids, as well as the Rural Electrification Fund (REF). REF, managed by AMADER, provides a funding mechanism to support private-sector mini-grid development, including capital cost grants for projects and feasibility studies for mini-grid deployment in the poorest areas of the country. In addition, AMADER supports both a competitive bidding process for mini-grid development in specified electrification zones of the country and ‘spontaneous project applications for rural electrification’ that can be submitted outside of the formal competitive bidding process.
With approval from AMADER, developers are permitted to set tariff rates for mini-grid electricity sold, an approach that has been credited with supporting innovative electricity business models within the country. Finally, support for diesel system hybridization with RE technologies has also supported mini-grid expansion in the country. This experience provides a strong example of a multifaceted approach to supporting mini-grid deployment.
Renewable Energy
Bangladesh
Policy support and frameworks
Further actions to facilitate distributed generation finance
The Government of Bangladesh established the Rural Electrification Board in 1977 to expand energy access, primarily through grid connection. It became clear that complementary off-grid options were needed to meet energy access goals in a timely and cost-effective manner. To meet that need, in partnership with the World Bank, the Government established a Solar Home System (SHS) programme in 2002 that linked energy access needs with the country’s well-established and flourishing microfinance industry.
The Government’s Infrastructure Development Company Limited (IDCOL) leveraged long-standing relationships between microfinance institutions (MFIs) and rural clients to provide a new service and to expand energy access. To implement the programme, IDCOL first chose successful MFIs for public–private partnerships (PPPs). With dedicated training, grants and loans, the selected MFIs then became the financiers, sellers and technicians for the installation and maintenance of the systems. IDCOL also established and certified technical standards for the technologies and implemented an SHS buy-back programme for customers connected to the grid within one year of purchase.
As a result of the SHS programme, over 3 million systems were installed from 2003 to 2014. The following lessons learned associated with key policy actions contributed to that successful outcome:
Renewable Energy
China
Economic and fiscal instruments
Further actions to facilitate distributed generation finance
Renewable Energy
Ethiopia
Policy support and frameworks
Further actions to facilitate distributed generation finance
Renewable Energy
Pakistan
Policy support and frameworks
Further actions to facilitate distributed generation finance
Renewable Energy
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Economic and fiscal instruments
Feed-in tariff (FIT)
Established in 2010, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland’s feed-in tariff (FIT) policy allows homeowners, businesses and other entities with renewable energy (biogas, hydro, solar and wind) systems under 5 MW to receive tariff payments for electricity produced. Tariffs differ in relation to system type and size. Under a digression approach, FIT payments are reduced at set times (annually or quarterly) depending on the technology.a This approach provides policy certainty and increases investor confidence. However, levels of technology deployment can also inform/alter the digression schedule and level, in order to support a stable market. To support increased deployment of community-level renewable energy, the United Kingdom Government will be increasing the tariff level to 10 MW for community approaches.
Renewable Energy
Canada
Policy support and frameworks
Renewable electricity standard/quota
Renewable Energy
Republic of Korea
Policy support and frameworks
Renewable electricity standard/quota
Renewable Energy
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
Renewable electricity standard/quota
Renewable Energy
Ghana
Economic and fiscal instruments
Feed-in tariff (FIT)
Renewable Energy
Indonesia
Economic and fiscal instruments
Feed-in tariff (FIT)
Renewable Energy
Mexico
Economic and fiscal instruments
Feed-in tariff (FIT)
Mexico is taking a multifaceted approach to addressing critical renewable energy (RE) related challenges. In particular, as an oil-producing country, Mexico has faced significant political and economic barriers to RE development. To address key challenges, Mexico pursued the robust actions presented in the figure, which has led to a fourfold increase in wind power capacity since 2010, supported by a USD 9 billion investment in wind power since 2006. Furthermore, with continued strong support, wind power capacity is expected to increase from 2.6 GW in 2014 to 9.5 GW in 2018.
Renewable Energy
Egypt
Economic and fiscal instruments
Auction/Tendering
Renewable Energy
South Africa
Economic and fiscal instruments
Auction/Tendering
In 2011, the Government of South Africa implemented the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme (REIPPP), establishing a competitive bidding process to support large-scale renewable energy (RE) deployment in the country and replacing a feed-in tariff programme. Since that time, four bidding processes have taken place, with a fifth one currently under development. The first three bidding windows resulted in USD 1.5 billion in domestic and international private investment for 64 projects with a total installed capacity of 3,915 MW. The process is also supporting significant declines in the prices of solar and wind power and reductions in emissions. As the programme continues, the Government expects the continued scaling up of RE deployment, resulting in significant emission reductions and other positive developments. Key features of REIPPP supporting successful outcomes include:
Renewable Energy
China
Economic and fiscal instruments
Auction/Tendering
Renewable Energy
Uruguay
Economic and fiscal instruments
Auction/Tendering
Uruguay presents a strong model of a country catalysing renewable energy (RE) through a robust policy package and the engagement of the private sector. As at 2014, approximately 90 per cent of Uruguay’s electricity was drawn from RE sources and investment in RE nearly tripled between 2012 and 2013. In 2015, wind power made up 28 per cent of the country’s power capacity, an increase from only 1 per cent in 2010. To achieve such positive outcomes, Uruguay designed reverse auctions that led to significant increases in wind power capacity and declines in the price of wind power. In addition, the auction mechanism is currently supporting 200 MW solar photovoltaic additions. The Government of Uruguay designed a net metering policy, tax exemptions and a solar hot water heater mandate to support RE deployment. Independent power producers and small self-generators currently make up 50 per cent of RE suppliers in Uruguay, and the Government continues to actively engage the private sector and communities in policy design and implementation. Uruguay’s policy package has focused largely on incentivizing investment and engaging the private sector, with less emphasis on regulations and mandates.
Renewable Energy
China
Economic and fiscal instruments
Tax measures and incentives
Renewable Energy
Japan
Economic and fiscal instruments
Tax measures and incentives
Renewable Energy
Sweden
Economic and fiscal instruments
Tax measures and incentives
Renewable Energy
China
Policy support and frameworks
Emission trading
Renewable Energy
European Union
Policy support and frameworks
Emission trading
Renewable Energy
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
Emission trading
Renewable Energy
Chile
Economic and fiscal instruments
Carbon tax
Renewable Energy
Canada
Economic and fiscal instruments
Carbon tax
Renewable Energy
Sweden
Economic and fiscal instruments
Carbon tax
Sweden has prioritized key climate and energy goals by implementing a comprehensive suite of long-term policies and actions. Within the country’s broader support framework, key policies include: carbon taxes, an emissions trading scheme, a bilateral renewable certificate programme, research, development and deployment measures, financial support through small and medium enterprise loans and technology investment grants, and collaborative action and information-sharing networks, such as the Regional Energy Climate Advisors. In particular, Sweden’s renewable certificate programme has been integral in supporting renewable electricity through an innovative bilateral partnership with Norway. Under the market-based, technology-neutral scheme, electricity suppliers and certain end-users purchase RE certificates allocated to RE producers on the basis of MWs produced. The policy allows suppliers to meet the RE quota while also providing additional revenue to RE producers. In 2012, Norway joined Sweden’s certificate programme, making it the first bilateral renewable certificate programme globally. On the basis of the success of those and other key policies, in 2015 more than 50 per cent of Sweden’s electricity was supplied by Renewable Energy (exceeding the European Union 2020 target on Renewable Energy) and in 2013 the country had reduced emissions by 23 per cent since 1990 while also experiencing strong economic growth. Key factors supporting Sweden’s success include: long-term political will and consistent policy signals to ensure investor confidence and a stable RE market; design of a robust policy package, drawing on international lessons learned and good practices, to address key barriers and enable investment from a unique country perspective; and the integration of electricity policy and markets across national borders.
Renewable Energy
Ireland
Policy support and frameworks
Grid integration actions
Renewable Energy
Jamaica
Policy support and frameworks
Grid integration actions
Renewable Energy
Spain
Policy support and frameworks
Grid integration actions
Renewable Energy
Chile
Economic and fiscal instruments
Further actions to facilitate finance for renewable energy
To address energy security concerns and support other key development and environmental goals, the Government of Chile put forward a target for 45 per cent of new installed power capacity to come from renewable energy (RE) sources between 2014 and 2025. To support that target and address challenges associated with bank lending for RE projects, the Chilean Economic Development Agency (CORFO) implemented a long-term, low interest rate concessional loan programme for local banks to lend to RE and energy-efficiency projects. The figure below presents the structure of the lending programme, which resulted in finance for 15 RE projects and set the stage for longer-term lending to RE projects in the country, with one third of Chilean banks now engaged in financing RE projects.
Renewable Energy
Philippines
Economic and fiscal instruments
Further actions to facilitate finance for renewable energy
Renewable Energy
Mexico
Economic and fiscal instruments
Further actions to facilitate finance for renewable energy
Mexico is taking a multifaceted approach to addressing critical renewable energy (RE) related challenges. In particular, as an oil-producing country, Mexico has faced significant political and economic barriers to RE development. To address key challenges, Mexico pursued the robust actions presented in the figure, which has led to a fourfold increase in wind power capacity since 2010, supported by a USD 9 billion investment in wind power since 2006. Furthermore, with continued strong support, wind power capacity is expected to increase from 2.6 GW in 2014 to 9.5 GW in 2018.
Renewable Energy
United Arab Emirates
Economic and fiscal instruments
Further actions to facilitate finance for renewable energy
While the United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a major hydrocarbon producer and exporter, the country also views economic diversification as a critical action to achieve key sustainable development goals aligned with environmental stewardship, energy security, resiliency, job creation and green growth. UAE also seeks to become a global leader in innovative and competitive industries.
Economic diversification and sustainable development are key pillars of Vision 2021 of UAE as well as the subnational strategies of the country’s seven emirates. At the highest level, the country’s Green Growth Strategy, informed by diverse stakeholder workshops, brings together actions across key sectors of the economy, including high-tech heavy industry, advanced manufacturing and clean technology, aviation, transport, education and clean energy, among others.
In alignment with the above-mentioned high-level strategies and plans, UAE supports a stable policy and regulatory framework to promote renewable energy (RE) domestically and internationally. The UAE RE company, Masdar, invests significantly in RE supply, demonstration (through Masdar City) and research (through the Masdar Institute). The domestic investments in RE of UAE recently experienced notable success, with the first 200 MW procured for a 1 GW solar plant tendered at USD 0.06/kWh. UAE also invests internationally and provides significant foreign aid for RE development. Through all of these actions, UAE presents a strong example of a country investing in RE to achieve critical environmental and development goals, domestically and globally.
Renewable Energy
Ukraine
Economic and fiscal instruments
Further actions to facilitate finance for renewable energy
Energy efficiency/Transport
Indonesia
Policy support and frameworks
Enhanced transport system efficiency and urban planning
Bogor, Indonesia, which is one of the pilot cities of the Sustainable Urban Transport Programme Indonesia (NAMA SUTRI) and one of the two model cities of the Urban Low Emission Development Strategies project in Indonesia, began implementation of a more efficient bus system in 2014. In an effort to reduce emissions, the buses will be switched to using natural gas. In addition, over 1,000 of the city’s microbuses will also be switched to run on natural gas or electricity.
Energy efficiency/Transport
Brazil
Policy support and frameworks
Enhanced transport system efficiency and urban planning
Energy efficiency/Transport
Spain
Policy support and frameworks
Enhanced transport system efficiency and urban planning
Energy efficiency/Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
Enhanced transport system efficiency and urban planning
Energy efficiency/Transport
Turkey
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of non-motorized travel
Energy efficiency/Transport
Spain
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of non-motorized travel
Energy efficiency/Transport
Mexico
Regulatory instruments
Promotion of non-motorized travel
Energy efficiency/Transport
France
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of non-motorized travel
Energy efficiency/Transport
South Africa
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of non-motorized travel
Johannesburg, South Africa: In October 2015, the EcoMobility World Festival will convene in Sandton, Johannesburg. Building on a recent, similar experience in Suwon, the Republic of Korea, the festival will turn the business district into a car-free zone for one month. The effort is intended to address growing congestion in the city, in which the number of commuters has been increasing by 3 per cent each year. To facilitate the closure, the city has outlined a detailed plan, which includes: the identification of closed streets; the provision of alternative transport; the improvement of infrastructure for non-motorized transport (e.g. sidewalks); the development of park-and-ride facilities; and the installation of signage.
Energy efficiency/Transport
Serbia
Economic and fiscal instruments
Changing mobility patterns
Belgrade, Serbia, faces several transport-related challenges, including growth in travel demand, long distances between jobs and homes, increased car ownership and an aging transport system. In an effort to address those issues, the city, along with the Urban Planning Institute, undertook an extensive evaluation and developed its Master Plan to 2021. The plan takes into account multiple actions to: optimize connectivity; improve the safety and quality of public transport; reduce traffic volume; oversee land-use planning; and provide funding for transport projects. Thus far, a bridge has been built; the tram and bus fleets and the traffic management systems have been modernized; park-and-ride stations have been developed; and a pricing scheme for downtown parking has been launched. Public ridership tripled within the first six months.
Energy efficiency/Transport
Malta
Economic and fiscal instruments
Changing mobility patterns
Energy efficiency/Transport
Italy
Economic and fiscal instruments
Changing mobility patterns
Energy efficiency/Transport
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Economic and fiscal instruments
Changing mobility patterns
Energy efficiency/Transport
New Zealand
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of mass public transport
Energy efficiency/Transport
Brazil
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of mass public transport
Energy efficiency/Transport
Indonesia
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of mass public transport
Bogor, Indonesia, which is one of the pilot cities of the Sustainable Urban Transport Programme Indonesia (NAMA SUTRI) and one of the two model cities of the Urban Low Emission Development Strategies project in Indonesia, began implementation of a more efficient bus system in 2014. In an effort to reduce emissions, the buses will be switched to using natural gas. In addition, over 1,000 of the city’s microbuses will also be switched to run on natural gas or electricity.
Energy efficiency/Transport
Colombia
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of mass public transport
Energy efficiency/Transport
Italy
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of mass public transport
Energy efficiency/Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of mass public transport
Energy efficiency/Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of mass public transport
Energy efficiency/Transport
Republic of Korea
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of mass public transport
In Seoul, the Republic of Korea, the Mayor and the metropolitan Government have revitalized the city’s transport system in an effort to improve the quality of the bus service, reduce noise and air pollution, lessen growth in demand for travel and provide funding for the development of the metro system. Improvements include: a reorganized bus service; new bus rapid transport (BRT) corridors; harmonization of the BRT and metro services; development of an integrated public transport fare; parking reforms; implementation of fuel taxes; new pedestrian facilities; and the use of buses running on compressed natural gas, among other changes. As a result of those improvements, bus speeds have increased, as has passenger use of buses.
Energy efficiency/Transport
Singapore
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of mass public transport
Energy efficiency/Transport
Japan
Policy support and frameworks
Promotion of mass public transport
Energy efficiency/Transport
Mexico
Regulatory instruments
Enhanced vehicle and fuel efficiency and fuel switching
Energy efficiency/Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
Enhanced vehicle and fuel efficiency and fuel switching
Energy efficiency/Transport
Egypt
Policy support and frameworks
Use of taxi and paratransit services
Energy efficiency/Transport
India
Policy support and frameworks
Use of taxi and paratransit services
Energy efficiency/Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
Use of taxi and paratransit services
Energy efficiency/Transport
India
Regulatory instruments
Enhanced vehicle and fuel efficiency and fuel switching
Energy efficiency/Buildings
United States of America
Regulatory instruments
Building energy codes and minimum energy performance standards
Energy efficiency/Buildings
China
Regulatory instruments
Building energy codes and minimum energy performance standards
Energy efficiency/Buildings
United States of America
Regulatory instruments
Building energy codes and minimum energy performance standards
Energy efficiency/Buildings
South Africa
Regulatory instruments
Building energy codes and minimum energy performance standards
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Sweden
Regulatory instruments
Building energy codes and minimum energy performance standards
Energy efficiency/Buildings
South Africa
Regulatory instruments
Building energy codes and minimum energy performance standards
Tshwane, South Africa, has an innovative green building by-law and development policy that was implemented to address electricity supply shortages, water shortages, lack of solid waste disposal sites, transportation issues and anticipated higher energy demand due to the higher temperatures anticipated with climate change. The green building by-law was approved by the City Council in 2012 and will be fully implemented by the end of 2015. It applies to new buildings, major retrofits and building additions and includes mandatory requirements and standards, supported by an incentive scheme.
Energy efficiency/Buildings
China
Regulatory instruments
Mandatory auditing and retro commissioning
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Brazil
Regulatory instruments
Mandatory auditing and retro commissioning
Recife, Brazil, recently passed its Green Roof Law, which requires a vegetation layer to be applied to the top of buildings and garages for the purposes of improving aesthetics, reducing heat islands, absorbing rainwater run-off and improving the local microclimate. The policy is also anticipated to reduce building temperature, protect buildings from ultraviolet rays and sudden temperature changes, provide areas for urban gardens, reduce external noise, save energy and improve air quality. The policy applies to residential buildings with four or more floors and non-residential buildings with more than 400 m2 of roof area. Recife is complementing the Green Roof Law by other energy efficiency programmes, including improving access to non-motorized transport, public transportation via ferries and a light-rail system.
Energy efficiency/Buildings
China
Regulatory instruments
Building performance certificates and labelling
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Japan
Regulatory instruments
Building performance certificates and labelling
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Singapore
Regulatory instruments
Building performance certificates and labelling
Energy efficiency/Buildings
China
Regulatory instruments
Building performance certificates and labelling
Energy efficiency/Buildings
United States of America
Regulatory instruments
Building performance certificates and labelling
Energy efficiency/Buildings
South Africa
Regulatory instruments
Building performance certificates and labelling
Energy efficiency/Buildings
United States of America
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial incentives and models
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Mexico
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial incentives and models
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Kenya
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial incentives and models
Energy efficiency/Buildings
China
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial incentives and models
Energy efficiency/Buildings
South Africa
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial incentives and models
Energy efficiency/Buildings
China
Policy support and frameworks
Data gathering (including reporting and benchmarking of performance data)
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Japan
Policy support and frameworks
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Singapore
Policy support and frameworks
Energy efficiency/Buildings
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
Energy efficiency/Buildings
South Africa
Policy support and frameworks
Data gathering (including reporting and benchmarking of performance data)
Energy efficiency/Buildings
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
Outreach, stakeholder engagement, and workforce training
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Sweden
Policy support and frameworks
Outreach, stakeholder engagement, and workforce training
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Nigeria
Policy support and frameworks
Outreach, stakeholder engagement, and workforce training
Energy efficiency/Buildings
France
Policy support and frameworks
Outreach, stakeholder engagement, and workforce training
Energy efficiency/Buildings
South Africa
Policy support and frameworks
Government leadership programmes and procurement
Energy efficiency/Buildings
Australia
Policy support and frameworks
Government leadership programmes and procurement
Byron Shire, Australia, a community of villages in New South Wales, is the first in the country to commit to zero emissions, a goal that it aims to reach within 10 years via a cross-sectoral approach that includes reducing energy usage in buildings. Byron Shire’s road map to zero emissions from buildings began with assessing the existing building stock and the potential for energy efficiency improvements and the use of rooftop solar. Implementation centres around the Energy Freedom campaign, targeting households and partnering with local energy efficiency and solar businesses. To complement the energy efficiency measures, Byron Shire Council has also put in place Australia’s first virtual net metering programme.
Energy efficiency/Lighting
India
Policy support and frameworks
Municipal procurement
Akola, India, implemented a robust energy-efficient street lighting programme, replacing more than 11,500 fluorescent, mercury vapour and sodium vapour lights with fluorescent tube lamps. The project was financed by an energy service company (ESCO), Asia Electronics Limited, which covered the upfront costs, facilitated the changing of the bulbs and provided maintenance. Asia Electronics Limited was repaid with energy savings over an 11-month project payback period. The project has reduced energy usage for street lighting by 56 per cent and lowered the city’s electricity bills by USD 133,000 annually. The model also enabled the municipality to avoid any project or financial risks. Similar projects are being replicated in the Indian States of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
Energy efficiency/Lighting
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
Municipal procurement
Energy efficiency/Lighting
Sweden
Policy support and frameworks
Municipal procurement
Energy efficiency/Lighting
Australia
Policy support and frameworks
Municipal procurement
Energy efficiency/Buildings
China
Policy support and frameworks
Municipal procurement
Energy efficiency/Lighting
Spain
Policy support and frameworks
Municipal procurement
In Catalonia, Spain, the provincial Government has been working with several municipalities to upgrade public lighting systems and is also utilizing ESCOs. From 2011 to 2013, there were 19 tenders for energy service contracts, resulting in EUR 30 million in investment and 40 per cent in energy savings. The role of the provincial Government has been to provide technical assistance to municipalities and oversight as a third party and to scale and leverage investments.
Energy efficiency/Lighting
United States of America
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial incentives
Energy efficiency/Lighting
South Africa
Policy support and frameworks
Phase-out of incandescent bulbs
Energy efficiency/Lighting
Ghana
Policy support and frameworks
Outreach and awareness
Energy efficiency/Lighting
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
Outreach and awareness
Energy efficiency/District energy systems
China
Policy support and frameworks
Development or expansion of district cooling/heating systems
Energy efficiency/District energy systems
Denmark
Regulatory instruments
Development or expansion of district cooling/heating systems
Energy efficiency/District energy systems
Malaysia
Policy support and frameworks
Development or expansion of district cooling/heating systems
Energy efficiency/District energy systems
India
Policy support and frameworks
Development or expansion of district cooling/heating systems
Energy efficiency/District energy systems
France
Policy support and frameworks
Development or expansion of district cooling/heating systems
Energy efficiency/District energy systems
Mauritius
Policy support and frameworks
Development or expansion of district cooling/heating systems
Energy efficiency/District energy systems
Denmark
Policy support and frameworks
Improvement to the efficiency of existing DES
Energy efficiency/District energy systems
Canada
Policy support and frameworks
Improvement to the efficiency of existing DES
Energy efficiency/District energy systems
Spain
Policy support and frameworks
Integrating renewable energy sources and utilizing waste heat
Energy efficiency/District energy systems
Iceland
Policy support and frameworks
Integrating renewable energy sources and utilizing waste heat
Energy efficiency/District energy systems
Canada
Policy support and frameworks
Integrating renewable energy sources and utilizing waste heat
Energy efficiency/District energy systems
Netherlands
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial incentives and market structures
Energy efficiency/District energy systems
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial incentives and market structures
Energy efficiency/District energy systems
Poland
Economic and fiscal instruments
Financial incentives and market structures
Transport
Brazil
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Curitiba, Brazil has intentionally employed transit-oriented development, where the focus is on developing high-density urban areas including residential, commercial and recreational uses with easy access to public transportation. In addition, pedestrian walkways are prominent in Curitiba, and bus service has been expanded.
Transport
India
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The initiative includes Low Carbon Mobility Plans that will be implemented in up to four Indian cities. Possible components include the promotion of low-carbon transport options through city-level indicators, the exploration of case studies that exemplify deployment of low-carbon technologies at a city level, and development of city-level planning for low-carbon mobility and climate resiliency.
Transport
Spain
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The Madrid Transports Consortium is working to integrate infrastructure and land use planning. They have proposed a theoretical framework to better define the issue and developed a tool that could diagnose the current situation and provide strategies for integrating urban areas and the transportation network. It could also identify key areas for intervention.
Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Currently at a population of over two million, Qingdao is expanding quickly. EMBARQ China has developed a comprehensive strategy that will integrate land use planning with transport options. The key to its success is working hand-in-hand with local stakeholders to define the issue and arrive at possible options for combatting urban sprawl.
Transport
Indonesia
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
ICLEI chose Bogor as an urban-LEDS city due to its geographic location close to Jakarta and its track record of being receptive to environmental initiatives. The program plans to focus on the following areas: continued transition to biodiesel-fueled buses, carbon sequestration, waste management, and water quality projects.
Transport
United Kingdom
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
London’s transport system has a rail network foundation that is then backed up by a comprehensive bus and ferry system. A key feature of the overall network is the prevalence of multi-modal stations that can handle large volumes of passengers. These major stations are often serviced by transport staff and provide real-time information on bus location.
Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Hong Kong is a densely populated city where the majority of the population uses public transportation (90%) and does not own a personal vehicle. The available network includes railways, trams, buses, minibuses, taxis and ferries operated by several entities.
Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Singapore has proven to be a leader in integrated multi-modal transport planning by implementing the very first area licensing and electronic road pricing systems and by limiting vehicle ownership by utilizing a quota system. Transport infrastructure is consistently maintained and updated.
Transport
New Zealand
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Bus rapid transit (BRT) employs systems that have historically been attributed to rail, such as having a dedicated lane to eliminate traffic congestion, collecting fares before boarding, and having frequent buses. The Auckland BRT began construction in 2001, and has been really effective at transporting people into the city center. It is estimated that 50% of the trips now use BRT because it provides a faster option in times of congestion. The system uses multi-mode tickets to so that passengers can easily transition from ferry to metro to bus.
Transport
Brazil
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Bus rapid transit (BRT) employs systems that have historically been attributed to rail, such as having a dedicated lane to eliminate traffic congestion, collecting fares before boarding, and having frequent buses. The first BRT in the world was built in Curitiba in 1974, and it continues to thrive today. The Belo Horizante BRT debuted in 2014 and covers 23 kilometers. It contains a high capacity corridor that continues to the heart of the city. It would benefit from having more restrictions on turning at intersections to limit delays.
Transport
Colombia
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Bus rapid transit (BRT) employs systems that have historically been attributed to rail, such as having a dedicated lane to eliminate traffic congestion, collecting fares before boarding, and having frequent buses. The Bogota BRT started in 2000 and additional lines were added in the following years to a total of 12 lines covering 112 kilometers. It has been highly successful, in many cases exceeding the effectiveness of a metro system. However, this success has caused overcrowded buses so the system would benefit from increased frequency of buses and additional routes.
Transport
Argentina
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Bus rapid transit (BRT) employs systems that have historically been attributed to rail, such as having a dedicated lane to eliminate traffic congestion, collecting fares before boarding, and having frequent buses. The Buenos Aires BRT first began operation in 2011, and it has expanded to additional lines on an almost annual basis. It has effectively utilized available wide roads to transport passengers to the city center and employs passing lanes to speed up transport. Unfortunately, the system still utilizes onboard fare collection.
Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Bus rapid transit (BRT) employs systems that have historically been attributed to rail, such as having a dedicated lane to eliminate traffic congestion, collecting fares before boarding, and having frequent buses. The Chengdoo BRT system started operations in 2013 and has since been expanded. The network features elevated roadways, dedicated lanes, extra wide buses and modern facilities. In the future, the BRT will be better integrated into an advanced urban public transport system involving urban rail transit system, tram service, regular bus system and taxi service.
Transport
Mexico
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Bus rapid transit (BRT) employs systems that have historically been attributed to rail, such as having a dedicated lane to eliminate traffic congestion, collecting fares before boarding, and having frequent buses. The Mexico City BRT began operations in 2005 with one line, gradually expanding to 7 lines by 2017. It has co-located key stations with the metro system, providing a truly interconnected transport option. However, the fare collection system is not integrated, which would speed up transition from one mode to another.
Transport
South Korea
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Bus rapid transit (BRT) employs systems that have historically been attributed to rail, such as having a dedicated lane to eliminate traffic congestion, collecting fares before boarding, and having frequent buses. The Seoul BRT was created due to transit reforms put in place in 2004, and it currently has 157 kilometers of bus-only lanes. It system has been especially effective in integrating the metro and bus systems, and ridership has increased since BRT was put into place. However, the fare structure is too complicated and could be improved.
Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Bus rapid transit (BRT) employs systems that have historically been attributed to rail, such as having a dedicated lane to eliminate traffic congestion, collecting fares before boarding, and having frequent buses. The Yichang BRT began operation in 2015 covering 23 kilometers. The project was funded by Asian Development Bank. It is especially effective because it has passing lanes to encourage multiple routes to utilize the corridor. It would benefit from providing increased access for bicycles.
Transport
South Africa
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Bus rapid transit (BRT) employs systems that have historically been attributed to rail, such as having a dedicated lane to eliminate traffic congestion, collecting fares before boarding, and having frequent buses. The Johannesburg BRT began operations in 2009 and is one of the first BRT systems in Africa. It has high quality stations and an infrastructure that goes directly through the city center, but this infrastructure is not well maintained and the bus lane restrictions are not strictly enforced.
Transport
Thailand
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The Bankok SkyTrain first entered service in 1999 and has been expanded into additional lines since then. Initially there was not easy access to the stations and a lack of convenient connections to desired destinations. However, that has been remedied and ridership has steadily increased.
Transport
Singapore
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The Bankok Singapore metro rail system first entered service in 1988 and has been expanded into additional lines since then. As of 2016, there are approximately 170 kilometers of track and 100 stations. The buildout of the system has been rapid in order to serve the burgeoning population and transport demands. Ridership continues to increase.
Transport
Italy
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The Cagliari light rail service began operations in 2008 and was expanded in 2015, adding 11 stops. The system was built through the renovation of existing rail infrastructure.
Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
In recent years, Beijing has seen a dramatic increase in the number of personal vehicles on the road. In order to alleviate congestion, the government implemented a bicycle sharing program in 2012. The program is relatively inexpensive, with no charge the first hour of use, and convenient, with stations in key areas in the city. There has been increased ridership, and the city planned to expand the system in 2015.
Transport
Colombia
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
In February 2016, Bogota opened a new segregated bike lane on Carrera 11 in the city. Early analysis indicates that this new lane alleviates conflicts between pedestrians and bicyclists in addition to easing boarding and offloading of the local buses in the area.
Transport
Ukraine
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Lviv has the ambitious plan to build over 200 km of bike paths throughout the city between 2011 and 2020. By the end of 2013, 30 km had been completed. Lviv hopes to complete 3-5 additional km per year.
Transport
Germany
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Muenster has a history of high bicycle usage and began promoting bicycles through dedicated infrastructure directly following World War II. Additional policies were implemented started in the 1970s. Lessons learned from years of promoting cycling include (1) make the bicycling system integrated with major roadways to improve convenience, (2) build infrastructure for future demand, (3) ensure safety by proper signage indicating potentially dangerous areas, (4) include directional signs indicating distance to destinations, (5) ensure that there are areas for parking bicycles, and (6) provide services for repairing bicycles.
Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Promoting walking and bike riding are the most environmentally friendly ways to encourage sustainable transport. Nanjing Road in Shanghai is a pedestrian-only walkway in a commercially attractive area. Since the conversion was made, the Nanjing Road area has seen a substantial increase in property value and the number of pedestrians who frequent the area.
Transport
Netherlands
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The Netherlands has been at the forefront of bicycling promotion by implementing bicycling superhighways that encourage commuting longer distances using this mode of transport. They have also made roundabouts safer for cyclist by either creating alternate routes (e.g., elevated pathways) for cyclists or by intentionally designing the entry to the roundabout to slow traffic (e.g., narrowing lanes).
Transport
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The Smart Traveler program was structured as a public/private partnership that included state and municipal governments and private partners, such as IBM and Pacific Bell. The program provides a ridesharing matching service in which users register with basic information about commute times and locations and can call to try to identify a convenient rideshare. Program administrators found that its users tended to travel further than the average commuter and that some of the challenges to broad participation have been irregular schedules and participants going home from places other than their offices (i.e. going home from an offsite location).
Transport
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The Puget Sound vanpooling service represents 2% of total commute trips and 7% of longer commutes of greater than 20 miles in its coverage area. Part of the success is due to a policy that requires companies to support employees in using alternative forms of transport.
Transport
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Uber Pool is a service that allows Uber riders to share their car with other passengers (up to a max of 4 co-riders). Choosing the Uber Pool option allows riders to save money (the fare is guaranteed and it is less expensive because the cost is spread across more riders). The Uber Pool service still picks riders up at their door so shared Uber Pool rides may take less direct routes and it is not necessarily the case the first rider picked up will be the first that is dropped at their final destination.
Transport
Colombia
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Bogota, Colombia has long used betterment levies to capture some of the increased value to private property from public infrastructure investments. Their successful BRT system, TransMilenio, has been shown by various studies to increase property values. As the city works to accommodate a growing population with expanded mass transit options, land-value capture through betterment levies will be an important element of their financing strategy.
Transport
Japan
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Tokyo has leveraged several innovative instruments to finance the development of public infrastructure in one of the world’s largest metropolises. One example is monetizing “air rights” for buildings with the ability to expand vertically as new mass transit options are added. Another example is collective agreements among property owners to pay charges to cover parts of construction costs for new railway stations (by creating a new quasi-public organization with public and private funds and repaying the construction costs through land owner profits from increased property values).
Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The Hong Kong Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC) has developed a model of financing and real estate development that has more than covered all of its construction costs over the past two decades. MTRC works with the government to acquire land associated with new railway lines and stations then puts together a public tender for property development rights to private firms. The private sector bidders pay development costs and enter profit-sharing mechanisms with MTRC.
Transport
India
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
India’s National Electric Mobility Mission Plan included a strong focus on how to establish an enabling policy environment for electric vehicle market expansion to support its ambitious goals for increasing penetration of electric vehicles. The roadmap includes investing in research and development and designing demand incentives, both through close partnership with the private sector. An analysis of scenarios with and without these policy interventions done jointly by the Indian Institute of Management and UNEP found that the roadmap has the potential to dramatically increase electric vehicle and hybrid two-wheeler penetration.
Transport
Japan
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Toyota recognizes the environmental challenges caused by tailpipe emissions (and the fact that petroleum is ultimately an exhaustible resource) and has responded by investing in research and development for a broad offering of “eco-cars.” The two principal strategies for executing this initiative are making their gasoline and diesel vehicles increasingly fuel efficient and promoting the adoption of their hybrid models. One of the metrics linked to this push towards more environmentally friendly vehicles is to have a 90% reduction in CO2 emissions from new vehicles by 2050.
Transport
United Kingdom
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Launched in 2007, the United Kingdom’s Low Carbon Transport Innovation Strategy describes a detailed long-term strategy to make transport more sustainable. The strategy is divided into low carbon technologies in four key sectors: road, aviation, rail, and shipping. The government’s strategy for each sub-sector includes policy elements that encourage demand, such as incentivizing the purchase of low carbon vehicles through excise duty adjustments, and elements that support research and development to improve the supply of quality lower carbon technologies that are more competitive with traditional options.
Transport
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The United States’ Department of Energy is striving to increase the penetration of hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, and all-electric vehicles by working with public and private partners to research, develop, and deploy technologies that improve the quality and competitiveness of more sustainable forms of transport. Focal areas for this work include battery performance, power electronics devices, grid integration, environmental and market analysis, and advanced testing for vehicles.
Transport
European Union
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The EU ICT-Emissions project is an initiative to develop a methodology to quantify the impact on CO2 emissions and fuel consumption of vehicle fleets. It was designed to serve local-level government and the automotive industry. The methodology blends more micro-scale elements of modeling impact with more macro scale or network-level inputs.
Transport
France
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The ITS for Climate Initiative is a French initiative to promote intelligent transport systems that have the potential to decrease GHG emissions. ITS approaches can include considering efficient intermodal exchanges, traffic management, and monitoring and evaluation techniques for environmental performance of vehicles and fleets.
Transport
Thailand
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Thailand is applying intelligent transport systems in a number of different ways, including providing more flexible services and reduced travel times, improving the efficiency of commercial vehicle operations, and providing real-time travel information across multiple modes. In addition to these new initiatives to develop additional intelligent infrastructure, the government is also working to maximize the efficiency of existing infrastructure.
Transport
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The U.S. Intelligent Transportation Systems for Improving Traffic Energy Efficiency and Reducing GHG Emissions from Roadways was launched in 2015 and is targeting an energy and emissions reduction of roughly 5% to 15%. The program design will vary depending on context, but all programming will consider the potential for unintended consequences of policy interventions through demand management measures, such as pricing.
Transport
Brazil
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Brazil passed vehicle efficiency standards that go into force in 2017 for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles. For passenger cars, the requirement is a fleet-wide target of 1.82 MJ/km and applies to cars that weigh less than 3,856 kg and have fewer than 12 seats. The regulatory agency is the Ministry of Industry and Commerce and both the passenger car and light commercial standards are relative to a weight-based corporate average.
Transport
Canada
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Canada’s standards on passenger cars and light-duty trucks target both greenhouse gas emissions (measured in grams of GHG emissions per kilometer traveled) on a fleet-wide corporate average basis. The passenger car standard is 135 g/km as of 2016 is scheduled to decrease to 98 g/km in 2025. For light trucks, the target in 2016 is 191 g/km, and going down to 136 g/km in 2025.
Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
China’s fuel economy standards for 2016-2020 target an overall fleet average fuel consumption of 5 liters per 100 kilometers. This overall objective is based on underlying categories of vehicle standards that are divided into three vehicle types and 16 weight categories.
Transport
Japan
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Japan’s fuel economy standards target a fleet-wide average of 20.3 kilometers per liter in 2020 (following a 2015 target of 16.8 kilometers per liter for passenger cars). Shifting from the 2015 goals to the 2020 objectives also included a shift from achieving targets in each weight and class category to an average for the entire fleet. For light trucks the 2015 target was 15.2 kilometers per liter.
Transport
Mexico
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
In 2013 Mexico passed fuel economy and CO2 emissions standards for new cars, pickup trucks, and SUVs. The standards apply from 2014 to 2016 and the policy design includes early action credits for model year 2012 and 2013 vehicles to incentivize early action. The International Council on Clean Transportation estimates that the set of standards taken together would result in a new car fleet-wide average fuel economy of 14.6 kilometers per liter for 2016 model year vehicles.
Transport
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The U.S. Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations apply to cars produced for sale in the United States and the metric used is miles per gallon. The standards are based on model years and target both fuel efficiency and GHG emissions. They are broken into three vehicle categories (domestic passenger car, import passenger car, and light truck) and the policy design includes incentive credits to outperform the standards, penalties for shortfalls, and the ability to transfer credits between model types within one manufacturer and between manufacturers.
Transport
Republic of Korea
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The Republic of Korea has set fuel economy and GHG emissions standards for 2020. On the fuel economy side, for passenger cars the requirement is 24.1 kilometers per liter and for light trucks it is 14.1 kilometers per liter. The GHG emissions standards draw on California’s Non Methane Organic Gases (NMOG) regulation and the European Fleet Average System (FAS).
Transport
Brazil
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Brazil has an ethanol fuel mixture mandate of a maximum of 27.5% ethanol and a biodiesel mandate of a maximum of 10% biodiesel.
Transport
Ethiopia
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Ethiopia has an ethanol fuel mixture mandate of a maximum of 10% ethanol.
Transport
European Union
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The EU has established sustainability criteria that seek to ensure that biofuels for transport and bioliquids for electricity and heating are used in a way that creates true carbon savings while also protecting biodiversity. The criteria include an escalating greenhouse gas savings requirement to be considered sustainable (currently 35%, rising to 50% in 2017, then 60% in 2018 for new production plants), land-use change considerations, and raw material sourcing considerations regarding biodiversity.
Transport
India
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
India has an ethanol fuel mixture mandate of a maximum of 10% ethanol.
Transport
Malaysia
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Malaysia has an ethanol fuel mixture mandate of a maximum of 10% ethanol and a biodiesel mandate of a maximum of 10% biodiesel (increased from 5%).
Transport
Norway
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Norway has a biodiesel mandate of a maximum of 3.5% biodiesel.
Transport
South Africa
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
South Africa’s ethanol fuel mixture mandate of a maximum of 2% ethanol and biodiesel fuel mandate of a maximum of 5% biodiesel went into effect in 2015.
Transport
Colombia
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The city of Bogota, in conjunction with the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, began a pilot program in 2013 that replaced 50 fossil-fuel-powered taxis with electric taxis. The program has been a huge success, displacing CO2 emissions and lowering vehicle maintenance costs. Bogota plans to expand the program.
Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
In the 2020-30 timeframe, China has a target of deploying 5 million electric vehicles (including 4.3 million cars, more than 0.3 million taxis, 0.2 million buses and 0.2 million special vehicles) This goal is complemented by the installation of electric vehicle supply equipment: 4.3 million private, 0.5 million public chargers for cars, 4000 for buses, 2500 for taxis, 2500 for special vehicles, 2400 city public charging stations, 0.5 million public charge points, and 850 intercity quick-charge stations. The take off of electric 2-wheelers in China was orchestrated due to policies that restricted the use of conventional 2-wheelers.
Transport
European Union
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
In 2014 the European Parliament adopted Directive 2014/94/EU on the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure, which promotes the use of private investments rather than public resources. Countries are required to submit their individual plan for deploying minimum levels of renewable infrastructure. The EU will have standards of what equipment will be deployed so that vehicles will be able to easily obtain fuel while traveling in different countries. Refueling stations will contain consumer information to deter misfueling and provide price comparisons among different fuels.
Transport
France
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
France announced a comprehensive energy plan in 2014 that included a goal of 7 million charging stations. In addition, there are incentives for the public to trade in their current vehicles for ne electric vehicles. This builds off of legislation from earlier in the year that gave tax incentives to companies for installing electric vehicle supply equipment.
Transport
Norway
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Oslo has been promoting the use of electric vehicles mainly through local incentives. These include dedicated traffic lanes and reduced-fee parking close to popular downtown locations. These measure will stay in place through 2017 or until there are 30,000 electric vehicles on the road.
Transport
Japan
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Koto City has placed requirements for new structures whereby at least ten percent of the parking spaces must have electric vehicle supply equipment. By tying the buildout to new construction, the city is anticipating future needs of citizens, decreasing costs, streamlining the installation process, and avoiding future construction retrofits that could be disruptive.
Transport
India
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
In 2013, India put into place a roadmap for reaching 6-7 million electric/hybrid vehicles by 2020 through a combination of different policies including vehicle purchase incentives, investment in research and development of new technologies, incentivizing charging infrastructure, production incentives for manufacturers, and encouraging retro-fitment of on-road vehicles with hybrid kit.
Transport
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The Drive Clean website, provided by the California Air Resources Board, helps consumers make informed decisions around vehicle purchases. It allows the user to compare different categories across all vehicle makes and models. Environmental categories include emissions ratings, smog, and purchase incentives.
Transport
Germany
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The National Innovation Programme for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology is funded by the German federal government, with the focus on development and deployment of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. The overarching goal is to help mitigate climate change and emissions through enabling technology development and increased industrial learning. The programme includes both transport sector-related and stationary applications.
Transport
South Korea
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
By 2030 Seoul has a goal to meet 20 percent of its energy demands from renewable energy sources, including 10 percent from fuel cells. Korea has been incentivizing hydrogen and fuel cell technologies for many years. Technologies are more likely to be deployed for commercial or industrial purposes rather than transportation.
Transport
United Kingdom
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The UK H2Mobility Project is a partnership of industry government, working to advance hydrogen-fuelled transport. This partnership came up with a roadmap for how hydrogen fueling infrastructure could be deployed across the United Kingdom.
Transport
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Green Freight Asia is a partnership of industry stakeholders who are involved in acquiring and transporting goods. The main goal of the organization is to reduce fuel consumption and a secondary goal is to reduce air emissions. Starting in 2014, companies could also apply to receive a label, showing that they are motivated by sustainability.
Transport
Canada
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The SmartWay Program encourages companies to become more sustainable across the supply chain. Launched in 2004, this voluntary program (1) provides a well-organized framework for tracking fuel use and freight emissions across supply chains, (2 )helps in the identification of more efficient freight carriers, transport modes, equipment, and operational strategies to improve supply chain sustainability and lower costs from goods movement, and (3) reduces environmental impacts of freight transportation-related emissions by increasing the use of less fuel intensive technologies.
Transport
China
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The China Green Freight Initiative (CGFI) was launched in 2012 and had 20 carriers and 2 shippers as of May 2015. There are three main components to the program: encouraging better logistics (e.g. better loading practices), adoption of green technologies (e.g. lightweighting), and eco-driving. CGFI is currently working on two standards: the Green Freight Enterprise Standard and Green Freight Vehicle Standard.
Transport
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
ECO Stars aims to help fleet owners to increase efficiency, and thereby profits, in their operations by advising them on how to decrease fuel use, operating costs, and emissions. It was launched in 2009 and now has over 300 participating members. The programme includes a 5-star rating system to identify the performance of companies based on environmental and energy-saving impacts.
Transport
Mexico
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
El Programa Transporte Limpio has three main objectives: to reduce fuel consumption, to decrease emissions, and to improve finances for transporters. As of 2014, there were 214 participants and around 1.3 million tons of CO2 had been avoided.
Transport
United Kingdom
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The Logistics Carbon Reduction Scheme, which was launched in 2009, is a voluntary program with the goal of documenting, reporting, and decreasing carbon emissions. It provides a venue for the United Kingdom logistics community to publicly report its impact on national carbon reduction targets, although numbers reported by individual members are confidential. As of April 2016, there were 210 members.
Transport
Netherlands
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Lean and Green helps businesses decrease environmental impact while increasing efficiency. It promotes smart and sustainable logistics. It currently has around 400 company members in various European communities. As of 2015, the program boasted a 400 thousand tonne CO2 reduction.
Transport
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has implemented many rules and regulations with the goal of decreasing emissions. As of January 2013, all ships with over 400 gross tons are required to meet a certain level of energy efficiency, with higher expectations of new ships. The IMO has also instated emission control areas: the Baltic Sea area; the North Sea area; the North American area. Ships trading in these areas are mandated to use on board fuel oil with a Sulphur content of no more than 0.10%, as of January 2015.
Transport
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Established in 2003, The Clean Cargo Working Group (CCWG) is a global programme with the goal of improving the environmental performance of marine container transport. The CCWG collects emissions data from 23 of ocean carriers that comprise approximately 80% of global ocean container capacity. Through this programme, CO2 emissions per TEU-km have decreased by 29% since 2009.
Transport
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
In 2015, Airbus started the “Sustainable Aviation Engagement Programme”, a long-term partnership with airlines to help increase airlines’ environmental performance. The programme focuses on aircraft technology, aircraft operations, Air Traffic Management, and sustainable aviation fuels. Airbus will work with the airlines to most effectively implement Airbus’ latest generation, fuel efficient aircraft to minimise fuel burn and noise in their operations. Initially the programme will include pilot projects with Cathay Pacific, British Airways and KLM and will be extended to operators worldwide in 2016.
Transport
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
Made available in 2008, the 777 Performance Improvement Package (PIP) from Boeing gives an option for operators to retrofit their existing 777-200, 777-200 Extended Range (ER), and 777-300 airplanes with the goal of saving fuel and decreasing CO2 and NOx emissions. The 777 PIP can provide an annual savings of 1 million pounds of fuel and an annual reduction of CO2 emissions of more than 3 million pounds. So far around 300 planes have been retrofitted.
Transport
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has developed a portfolio of standards, policies and guidance documents for reducing aircraft noise and engine emissions through operating procedures, technological improvements, directing air traffic, airport and land-use planning, and implementing market-based options. Through these efforts, today aircraft operations have the potential to be 70% more efficient than in the 1970s. In 2004, ICAO put forward new environmental goals: decrease the number of people impacted by aircraft noise, decrease the influence of aviation emissions on local air quality, and decrease the influence of aviation emissions on climate.
Transport
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The Partnership for Air Transport Noise and Emissions Reduction was a collaboration among United States universities, industry, and government, led by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, to reduce emissions and noise pollution from the aviation sector. It operated from 2008 to 2015 and was replaced by the Aviation Sustainability Center (ASCENT). The goal of ASCENT is to research new ways to meet environmental and energy goals in the aviation sector, and it is funded by the U.S. Department of Defense, the Federal Aviation Administration, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and Transport Canada.
Transport
United States of America
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
The Great Green Fleet an initiative that will run throughout 2016 where the Department of the Navy will demonstrate efforts to transform its energy use. The focal point is a Carrier Strike Group that runs on alternative fuels, including nuclear power for the carrier and a blend of advanced biofuel made from beef fat and traditional petroleum for its escort ships. Other platforms including ships, aircraft, amphibious and expeditionary forces, as well as shore installations, will participate by using energy efficient systems, operational procedures, and/or alternative fuel during the course of global operations.
Value of Carbon
European Union
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) applies carbon's social and economic value to several different projects and initiatives in support of its targets to increase its share of green finance and increase total green business investments by 2020. Carbon valuation serves three primary purposes for EBRD: a) undertaking feasibility and sensitivity analysis under current emissions trading regimes (e.g. EU ETS) and modeling for future anticipated regulations, b) using shadow carbon pricing that helps recognize the negative externalities associated with carbon emissions (generally in contexts with limited or no available carbon pricing), and c) designing innovative approaches for donor grant co-funding that corresponds to metrics based on carbon's social/environmental value alongside other sources of funding that target more traditional financial metrics.
Value of Carbon
Netherlands
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
Royal Dutch Shell employs a CO2 project screening value (PSV) of $40/tonne in its planning to quantify existing and prospective government regulations on carbon, to more thoroughly investigate risks associated with major carbon-intensive projects, and to drive long-term strategy design towards developing a portfolio of projects that is resilient to future carbon policy scenarios. Shell has spent more than a decade and a half developing its PSV strategy and sees it as a necessary risk management and planning tool.
Value of Carbon
United States of America
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
Owens Corning uses carbon pricing set at a variety of levels to systematically analyze challenges and opportunities in their business resulting from climate change policy in quantitative terms. Their internal prices allow risk from future regulations to be easily compared with other financial indicators in making long-term business decisions. Their internal prices range from $10/tonne to $60/tonne.
Value of Carbon
United Kingdom
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
The United Kingdom’s (UK) government and its regulators evaluate proposed policies, projects, and programs and conduct impact assessments through an appraisal of costs and benefits to society. In order to properly weigh societal costs of carbon emissions, the UK uses a carbon price that reflects their estimate of the present value of future damages caused by carbon emissions over the next 100 years. The carbon price helps assure that socially and environmentally optimal policies, projects, and programs are implemented and that impact assessments reflect long-term societal and environmental impacts.
Value of Carbon
United States of America
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the United States of America uses a social cost of carbon estimate to evaluate the climate benefits of proposed policies. The internal carbon price represents the present value of damages that can be avoided by decreasing emissions by one metric ton. The internal carbon price estimates were first released in 2010 and have since been used in decision making for policies that target CO2 emissions directly as well as those that are environmental in nature but only affect CO2 emissions indirectly (such as a policy directed at toxic pollutants that has attendant CO2 emissions impacts).
Value of Carbon
United Kingdom
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
Rio Tinto is a global company with revenues that stem primarily from carbon-intensive industries, such as aluminum and iron ore production, so understanding the business impacts of climate change policy regimes has been an important part of its decision making and risk management since the early 1990’s. Over the years the firm has learned from operating under various climate policy regimes worldwide and that experience informs the application of an internal carbon price to prospective projects to assess their risks and financial viability. The company also constructed an abatement cost curve for different emissions reductions strategies and sets internal emissions reduction targets to proactively prepare for stricter future GHG emissions policies.
Value of Carbon
Canada
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
Alberta has an emissions trading system structured as a cap and trade market that targets a 50 million tCO2 equivalent emissions reduction by 2020 relative to BAU projections. In order to achieve this goal, firms that emit more than 100,000 tCO2e annually are subject to the market and its regulations. The companies can achieve these reductions by reducing onsite emissions, purchasing emission performance credits, purchasing Alberta-based offsets, or by contributing to the province’s Climate Change and Emissions Management Fund.
Value of Carbon
United States of America
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
California’s cap and trade system is targeted towards large electric power plants, industrial plants, and fuel distributors and seeks to decrease emissions from those regulated entities by more than 16 percent between 2013 and 2020. The regulated entities constitute nearly 85 percent of total greenhouse gas emissions for the state. In 2014, California’s cap and trade market was linked to Quebec’s under the auspices of the Western Climate Initiative (WCI).
Value of Carbon
China
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
China’s national emissions trading system is scheduled for launch in 2017, following seven smaller scale pilot programs in five cities and two provinces to begin testing the system and acquainting various stakeholders with the process. The cap and trade system will target eight industries when it launches with a threshold for the regulation of total annual energy consumption of 10,000 metrics tons of coal equivalent in 2013, 2014, or 2015. This carbon market will be a centerpiece of the nation’s goal of peaking emissions by around 2030.
Value of Carbon
Canada
United States of America
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
The Western Climate Initiative (WCI) is the organizing entity for the first carbon market designed and managed by sub-national governments across different countries. The initiative linked the carbon markets in Quebec and California in 2014 and is working on policy reform and design to incorporate several more Canadian provinces, including British Columbia, Ontario, and Manitoba. Beyond the cap and trade market governed on WCI’s behalf by WCI, Inc. the initiative is also engaged in broader regional climate action planning that includes a number of states and provinces from Canada, Mexico, and the United States.
Value of Carbon
Canada
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
Quebec is home to a cap and trade system that was linked to California’s through the Western Climate Initiative in 2014. The carbon market covers the industrial and electricity sectors and applies to companies that emit at least 25,000 metric tons of CO2 equivalent per year. The market also allows for voluntarily participation by companies or individuals who are not currently covered by the regulation. Revenue from the allowance auctions are directed to the province’s Green Fund and supports the implementation of its 2013-2020 Climate Change Action Plan.
Value of Carbon
Denmark
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
Denmark passed a carbon tax in 1991 that went into effect in May 1992 and covers fossil fuel consumption and implementation is managed to take into account EU ETS coverage, energy taxes, and electricity taxes. Part of the revenue is directed towards environmental subsidies to bolster its impact while the remainder is returned to industry.
Value of Carbon
Costa Rica
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
Costa Rica enacted a carbon tax in 1997 that is levied on fossil fuel consumption at a set percentage of market value of the fuels. The revenues from the tax are directed towards government programs that seek to incentivize sustainable development and forest conservation.
Value of Carbon
United States of America
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
The city of Boulder adopted a voter-approved carbon tax that took effect in April 2007 and has since been renewed several times (most recently in 2015). The tax is levied on electricity usage on a per kilowatt hour basis and has three levels based on type of customer (residential, commercial, and industrial). The funds raised by the carbon tax are used to fund the city’s climate action plan which focuses on renewable energy, energy efficiency in buildings, and reducing emissions from vehicle miles traveled.
Value of Carbon
South Africa
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
South Africa is considering a carbon tax bill that would go into effect at the start of 2017. The tax would apply to fossil fuels, industrial processes, and fugitive emissions. The bill includes a schedule of types of entities and emissions that would be eligible to have a percentage of the tax waived, resulting in a range of different effective tax rates depending on the source of the greenhouse gas emissions.
Value of Carbon
Canada
France
Germany
Italy
Japan
United States of America
United Kingdom
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
The G7 (UK, US, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan) confirmed the timeline for reforming many fossil fuel subsidies. The group had made a joint statement affirming their dedication to work together to reform the subsidies and in March 2016 it committed to a deadline of 2025 for winding down most fossil fuel subsidies with a particularly focus on coal, oil, and gas.
Value of Carbon
Ghana
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
In the early 2000’s Ghana embarked on several different attempts to liberalize fuel prices and remove unsustainable price supports. The first attempt in 2001 was focused on relieving pressure on the heavily-indebted Tema Oil Refinery, which was being kept afloat through heavy government financial support, and was an element of an IMF program to both reduce poverty and drive growth. The policy included elements to ease the burden on lower-income Ghanaians, but ultimately saw limited success due to both outside forces in the form of rising oil prices and internal implementation challenges with pricing mechanisms. A second attempt was undertaken in early 2003 and ran into similar troubles but a third attempt in 2005 saw more success, albeit somewhat temporarily. Part of the success of the third attempt was attributed to increased transparency during the planning process, a diligent assessment of the impacts of the current subsidy regime (which was found to favor wealthier households), and a more detailed and developed plan for how to manage the effects on lower-income communities.
Value of Carbon
France
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
France took a gradual but ultimately successful approach to subsidy reform in its coal sector. A large part of France’s post-war plans, coal investment in Charbonnages de France (CdF) was substantial in the first decade following World War II. However, in part due to the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community which required a balanced and fair market with more limited state intervention, France embarked on removing coal industry supports in the early 1960’s. It invested heavily in providing support and re-training for laborers in the industry and slowly drove down coal production. A focus on job creation and a gradual approach to liberalization of the industry managed political headwinds but resulted in a process that ultimately lasted roughly 45 years and left the government still providing substantial lifelong benefits to retired coal industry laborers.
Value of Carbon
India
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
India moved to market prices for fuels (including diesel) in March 2002, but rising global oil prices and an domestic election led the government to introduce policies that restricted oil marketing companies’ ability to pass cost increases through to consumers. The cost of the subsidy was somewhat volatile but by 2012 had reached an annual cost of nearly $23 billion, more than half of which was directed towards diesel fuels (which were a critical component of energy use in transport in India). The costs became unsustainable and studies revealed that they favored wealthier elements of society with the benefits to lower-income households being largely limited to decreased food prices because of diesel’s important role in the cost structure of getting products to market. Despite fierce political opposition, the government began to unwind the subsidy program and did so over the course of roughly two years.
Value of Carbon
Malaysia
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
The gradual reform of subsidies was an important element of Malaysia’s 10th Malaysia Plan, which covered 2010-2015, and the New Economic Model, which was the government’s principal strategy document for turning Malaysia into a high income nation. After a slow start, an opportunity presented itself following elections in fall 2013 to roll back the subsidies on fuel (and other products including staples such as sugar) in an effort to improve confidence in the nation’s fiscal policy. Malaysia’s credit rating was downgraded by Fitch, a global ratings agency, because of high debt levels which were driven in part by unsustainable subsidy expenses. The price increases in the 2013 reform moved the prices of diesel and one lower-grade fuel up by roughly 10% (with a higher-grade fuel used more predominantly by wealthier Malaysians allowed to be priced more or less to the market). As the reform was a direct response to fiscal challenges it was taken by some as an important step towards good fiscal management, while others maintained that it would put pressure on lower-income communities and provoke economic contraction. Ultimately the fiscal and current account deficits provided enough cover to move forward on subsidy reform but not enough to set a course for a complete transition to market prices.
Value of Carbon
Kazakhstan
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
Kazakhstan’s emissions trading system is structured as a cap and trade system and covers 55% of total emissions. The system’s objective is decreasing emissions by 7% by 2020 compared with 1990 and 15% by 2025 relative to 1992 levels. Kazakhstan is working towards this goal by incrementally decreasing the cap on emissions each year. The sectors included are oil, coal, and gas production, the power sector, and the chemical industry (with a potential expansion to agriculture and transport) and the threshold for inclusion is emissions of greater than 20,000 tCO2 per year.
Transport
Finland
Policy support and frameworks
National policies, tools and schemes to advance low-carbon public transport at different scales
From 2007 to 2013, The Tekes Fuel Cell programme helped to deploy fuel cell and hydrogen technologies and services. The programme assisted in the creation of viable new businesses and business models by fostering collaboration among key players along the supply chain and accelerated the deployment of fuel cell technologies. It included more than 70 successfully completed projects from more than 60 companies.
Value of Carbon
Slovakia
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
In partnership with the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) and the government of Spain, an innovative sustainable energy financing facility (SlovSEFF III) was created to provide a credit line to commercial banks in Slovakia to fund loans to support projects that reduce emissions. The facility is designed such that sales of carbon credits from Slovakia to Spain fund investments in greenhouse gas emissions reductions and it includes incentives for projects with greater emissions reduction potential to be prioritized over those with smaller reductions per euro invested. The three primary categories of approved projects are renewable energy, industrial energy efficiency, and residential energy efficiency.
Value of Carbon
European Union
Iceland
Norway
Liechtenstein
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU – ETS) is a cap and trade system that operates in 31 countries (all 28 members of the EU plus Iceland, Norway, and Liechtenstein) and is the first and largest carbon market in the world. The system covers more than 11,000 heavy energy-using installations, such as power stations and industrial plans, as well as airlines that operate between its participant countries. The design of the system includes a single cap across nations, auctioning of emissions allowances, and special incentives to encourage renewable energy technologies and carbon capture and storage deployment.
Value of Carbon
Switzerland
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
Switzerland enacted a carbon tax in 2008 that applies selectively to fossil fuels and contains exemptions for firms that participate in the country’s ETS. The tax is intended to operate in concert with the ETS, giving companies different options on carbon emissions management compliance. For companies that opt for the carbon tax, the level of emissions that are subject to carbon levies takes into account past reductions in CO2 intensity. The revenues are used to fund emissions reductions in the buildings sector, support for research and development into GHG-reducing technologies, to drive increased renewable energy deployment, and to improve natural resources management.
Value of Carbon
Portugal
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
Portugal enacted a carbon tax in 2015 that applies to sectors that are not covered by the EU ETS, which translates to roughly 26% of the nation’s emissions.
Value of Carbon
Senegal
Economic and fiscal instruments
Estimating and applying the social and economic value of carbon
Responding first to deforestation trends in the 1970’s, Senegal has sought to increase substitution of LPG for traditional charcoal and firewood usage for cooking purposes. It began by seeking to reduce the price of cooking equipment designed for LPG, which saw limited success. In 1988 the government started subsidizing the fuel itself and tried to tailor it to target low-income populations by only subsidizing smaller cylinders. The fuel subsidies appeared to be fairly successful in increasing LPG stove adoption and slowing the rate of deforestation, but they imposed a substantial fiscal burden on the government. This was in part because the ultimate structure of the price management was a set price for each size of cylinder so even baseline inflation by itself increased the cost of the program over time. The cost to the government got as high as 1.4% of GDP in 2006 and soon thereafter it began to lower the subsidy over time.
