Distr.
GENERAL
FCCC/CP/1996/12
10 June 1996
Original: ENGLISH
CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES
Second session
Geneva, 8-19 July 1996
Item 5 (a) of the provisional agenda
Paragraphs Page
I. INTRODUCTION 1 - 5 3
II. NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES 6 - 15 4
III. INVENTORIES OF ANTHROPOGENIC EMISSIONS
AND REMOVALS 16 - 23 7
IV. POLICIES AND MEASURES TO LIMIT ANTHROPOGENIC
EMISSIONS AND PROTECT AND ENHANCE SINKS AND
RESERVOIRS OF GREENHOUSE GASES AND THEIR
SPECIFIC EFFECTS 24 - 31 9
GE.96-
Paragraphs Page
V. PROJECTIONS AND OVERALL EFFECTS OF POLICIES
AND MEASURES 32 - 43 11
VI. FINANCE, TECHNOLOGY AND CAPACITY BUILDING 44 - 49
14
VII. IMPLEMENTATION OF OTHER COMMITMENTS AND
RELATED ISSUES 50 - 57 15
Table 1 Anthropogenic emissions of CO2, excluding land-use
change and forestry, relative inventory figures for
1991-1994 and projections data for 2000 17
Table 2 Anthropogenic emissions of all greenhouse gases,
excluding land-use change and forestry, relative data
for 1991-1994 and projections data for 2000 18
1. The second compilation and synthesis of first national
communications from Parties included in Annex I to the Convention
(hereinafter referred to as "Annex I Parties") consists of three
parts: the executive summary (this document), the main report
(FCCC/CP/1996/12/Add.1) and the tables of inventories of
anthropogenic emissions and removals and projections for 2000
(FCCC/CP/1996/12/Add.2).
2. The second compilation and synthesis report on first national
communications covers 31 Annex I Parties which submitted their
national communications by 1 May 1996, that is, all Annex I Parties,
except Belgium,(1) the European
Community(2) and
Lithuania,(3) plus Liechtenstein and
Monaco which, though not listed in Annex I, have also submitted their
communications. Belarus, Turkey and Ukraine, although included in
Annex I, have not yet ratified or acceded to the Convention. This
report also draws upon in-depth reviews (IDR) of communications from
21 Annex I Parties undertaken by international teams of experts and
coordinated by the secretariat.
3. This compilation and synthesis report provides an overview
of the implementation of the Convention by those Annex I Parties
providing information through national communications and IDRs,
noting trends and patterns, areas of convergence or divergence, data
gaps and other findings, including the overall effects of policies
and measures. A number of suggestions for revisions to the guidelines
for the preparation of national communications aimed at making them
more consistent, transparent and comparable, based on submissions
from Parties and the experience from the review process, are included
in document FCCC/SBSTA/1996/9. An overview of the review process, as
well as suggestions for the schedule of submission of national
communications, are included in document
FCCC/CP/1996/13.
4. In accordance with decision
2/CP.1(4) both this summary and the main
report include, as appropriate, the names of
Parties(5) in the text, bearing in
mind the facilitative and non-confrontational nature of the review
process.
5. The main report contains text with graphs and illustrative
tables, while full data, such as inventory and projections tables,
are included in document FCCC/CP/1996/12/Add.2. Unless stated
otherwise, all references to tables in this summary are to that
document.
6. All reporting Parties described the national circumstances
on the basis of which their climate change activities are formulated
and implemented. The table summarizing national emissions reduction
targets is presented in the main report. The descriptions of these
circumstances contain a wide range of information and vary widely in
their scope, focus and level of detail. Circumstances are not static,
since they include, in addition to physical characteristics, economic
conditions, as well as policy preferences and determination to take
action, which can change, inter alia,
in response to the climate change problems.
7. Descriptions of national circumstances are helpful in
understanding the varying degree to which the Convention commitments
are met, the approaches followed by each Party, the extent to which
policies and measures are or can be implemented, in which sectors of
the economy they are most effectively introduced and why specific
types of policy instruments have been used. The differing national
circumstances influence each Party's choice of action and the
associated costs and benefits. The wide range of national
circumstances explains the differing emissions profiles; it also
affects projection scenarios reported by Parties. The understanding
of these specific circumstances has been considerably enriched
through the process of in-depth reviews. Each in-depth review report
attempts to reflect the challenges faced and constraints encountered
by the Party being reviewed in the implementation of its climate
change programmes.
8. Descriptions of national circumstances do not always refer
to the full area of the Party's territory either because parts of
territory have been excluded upon ratification or accession to the
Convention, or have not been considered for other
reasons.
9. Important factors for any country are its natural
endowments and the physical characteristics of its territory.
Typically, natural endowments determine a country's share in
international energy markets, the energy mix used for electricity
production, heating and transport, energy production profiles, etc. A
country's energy demand is related to its economy, its land area, its
latitude and climatic conditions. A key factor in the development of
energy demand is the consumption pattern of the population, which is
determined by its size and density, its growth rate and dispersion in
the national territory, and its purchasing power.
10. The overall structure of a country's economy and its
energy profile usually indicate which are the largest and fastest
growing sources of greenhouse gases (GHG). The largest sources of
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in Parties as a whole are
the energy production and transformation and transport sectors. The
Parties, however, differ in terms of their domestic energy supply and
demand, their access to energy markets and the extent to which they
use, or have the potential for, renewable and non-fossil energy
sources. The agricultural and waste sectors, their share in national
income and technological development largely
determine methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide
(N2O) emissions in reporting Parties. For several Parties
the enhancement of sinks, in particular forests, is an important part
of their efforts aimed at limiting total net
emissions.
11. Equally important to the understanding of a country's
climate change activities is a description of policy instruments
available to the governments as a function of constitutional powers
accorded to central and state governments. Political systems also
influence a country's approach to mitigation and implementation of
policies and measures. In some federal systems, the central
government has only limited control over natural resource use,
implementation of energy or transport policies, the levying of energy
taxes, the administration of regulatory instruments, etc. In some
Parties climate change policies have to be mutually agreed by central
and provincial or state governments before funding is allocated. The
in-depth review process is especially helpful for understanding the
constraints and approaches used by those Parties in which provinces
and states play an independent role in national policy-making. The
institutional framework of each government and the level of
independence of its agencies or ministries are also important factors
related to climate change policies and measures. In many reporting
Parties inter-ministerial committees have been established to support
coordination and monitoring of such measures. In these Parties this
is seen as an important step towards the integration of climate
change considerations into economic and energy
policies.
12. In the Parties with economies in transition (EIT) the
switch to market economies initiated earlier this decade has been
characterized by deep economic crisis, the collapse of traditional
foreign markets and a sharp decrease in domestic consumption and
industrial output, resulting in drastic drops in gross domestic
product (GDP). As a consequence of this economic restructuring
process, which in some Parties has also included the removal of
energy subsidies, GHG emissions have decreased significantly. In many
of the other Parties, economic recession in the first half of this
decade has influenced both emissions and responses to climate
change.
13. The EIT countries have been characterized by a high share
of industry in national income, with a resulting high energy
intensity per unit of output and high dependency on energy imports or
on indigenous fossil fuel resources. Governments in many of these
countries promote energy efficiency in order to decrease dependence
on imported fuel and enhance energy security, but the profound
structural changes in their energy and industrial sectors are yet to
result in concrete energy savings.
14. Overall, national communications and their in-depth
reviews reveal a growing consensus that climate change causes are
intrinsically related to energy policies and that gains in energy
efficiency make sense in economic terms while also improving a
country's emissions profile. As economies overcome recession periods,
climate change concerns, together with improvements in energy
efficiency and more rational use of natural resources, are gradually
being considered in conjunction with more strategic issues such as
national energy security and diversification in supply
sources.
15. The wide range of national circumstances can be
illustrated by considering CO2, a major GHG. Figure 1, in
which per capita CO2 emissions are plotted against
CO2 emissions per unit of GDP, gives such an illustration.
Low CO2 emissions per unit of GDP with high emissions per
capita may indicate high energy efficiency levels and consumption
patterns. High emissions per unit of GDP with high emissions per
capita may reflect inefficient use of fossil fuels and/or a high
share of fossil fuels, in particular coal, in the energy mix. Low
emissions per unit of GDP with low emissions per capita could mean
that the Party has a high share of hydro or nuclear power in its
energy balance while having high living standards, or that the Party
has a relatively small economy compared with other Annex I economies
with the same population size. Relative "positions" of Parties are
also the result of significant differences in current and historical
prices of energy commodities. This figure suggests that, in spite of
major differences in national circumstances, there are common
characteristics for some groups of Parties, which could be taken into
account in developing further commitments under the
Convention.
16. All reporting Parties communicated national inventories
of anthropogenic emissions by sources of GHG not controlled by the
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. With
reference to Article 4.6, four EIT Parties have chosen a year other
than 1990 as the base year for reporting, but they also provided a
1990 inventory (see tables 1 and 2 in annex
hereto).
17. CO2 was confirmed as being the most important
anthropogenic GHG for the reporting Parties (80.5 per cent of total
emissions in 1990, excluding land-use change and forestry), using the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 1994 global warming
potential (GWP) values. Fuel combustion was the largest source of
CO2 emissions (96.6 per cent), with most of these
emissions coming from energy and transformation industries and
transport. Managed forests were the largest carbon sink; no removals
for gases other than CO2 were reported. The largest source
of CH4 emissions was fugitive fuel emissions (37.8 per
cent) followed by livestock (31.4 per cent) and waste (26.6 per cent)
emissions. The largest source of N2O emissions was
agriculture (fertilizer use) 43.8 per cent, followed by industrial
processes (29.9 per cent), although the reporting level for this
category was low. Complete data for 1990 GHG emissions are contained
in tables A.1 to A.8.(6)
18. Information provided by Parties about uncertainties in
emission estimates demonstrated that estimates for most GHG emissions
have a high degree of reliability, despite the lower confidence
levels for CH4 and N2O emissions, thus
providing a basis for implementing climate change policies and
monitoring the effects of measures. Nevertheless, many Parties felt
it desirable to further improve quantitative estimates reducing
uncertainties wherever possible.
19. Some inconsistencies and difficulties in aggregating and
comparing inventory data have arisen, owing to different definitions
being used for source/sink categories and different assumptions made,
and gases and/or categories being included by some Parties and not by
others. The technical analysis of inventories, based on national
communications, supporting material and in-depth reviews revealed
information gaps. Adjustments in inventories used by some Parties
were a factor complicating comparability, consistency and
transparency of the emission estimates.
20. The analysis of inventory data demonstrated that more
than 90 per cent of Parties reported GHG emissions for those
activities where default IPCC methodologies were available, although
the majority of Parties either used other methods or improved the
default methodologies to suit their national conditions. This factor
highlights the importance of improving default methodologies and
developing new ones for additional sources or
sinks.
21. Parties showed a willingness to provide additional
supporting data and made substantial efforts to improve the quality
of their inventories reporting. Problems of insufficient transparency
as well as methodological problems mainly proved to be due to a lack
of experience in preparing inventory data and imperfections in the
guidelines. The majority of problems identified during the review of
inventories can be solved by applying state-of-the-art methods in
preparing and reporting GHG inventories. The land-use change and
forestry source category is an exception which requires more
scientific work to overcome existing difficulties, as well as
improvements in the availability of activity data.
22. The review and synthesis of inventories was facilitated by the existence of the guidelines for the preparation of national communications, which Parties made considerable efforts to follow. Substantial progress was made, especially during the in-depth reviews, in
understanding the problems of inventory reporting and in
identifying areas for further work. With improvements in the
guidelines, more comprehensive, comparable and consistent national
inventory data could be obtained.
23. At the time of writing, 18 Annex I Parties have submitted to the secretariat inventory data for the years subsequent to 1990, as requested by decision 3/CP.1, although not all of them reported data for 1994. The available data are contained in tables C.1 to C.5.(7) Figure presents relative percentage changes in CO2 emissions for these Parties in comparison to 1990 unadjusted inventory data (see also table 1 in the annex to this executive summary).
Figure 2. Percentage change in CO2 emissions inventories (excluding sinks) in
1991-1994 with respect to 1990.
EMISSIONS AND PROTECT AND ENHANCE SINKS AND
RESERVOIRS OF GREENHOUSE GASES AND THEIR
24. All reporting Parties provided a description of the
policies and measures they have adopted to implement their
commitments under Article 4.2(a) and (b). The presentations varied
significantly from Party to Party both in detail and approach,
illustrating the diverse contexts in which they are implemented and
the difficulties of presenting them in a way that is comparable to
other countries. Policies and measures reported by Parties are
described in detail in the main report,(8)
and this summary only provides some general remarks and
examples.
25. All Parties specifically targeted CO2 emissions.
GHGs other than CO2 were also subject to a wide range of
measures aimed at emissions reductions. A substantial number of
measures are at the implementation stage with their effects expected
in the medium to long term. For example, development and
implementation of new and renewable energy sources (for example,
biomass, geothermal, wind, solar energy) are often seen as important
and promoted by various means, but only in a few countries do
non-hydro renewable exceed 10 per cent of the present energy
balance.
26. The choice of the type of policy instrument was generally
related to national circumstances, such as political structure,
overall economic situation, the organization of the energy sector or
social considerations. They were implemented by both state and local
governments, as well as the private sector. The IDRs confirmed a
tendency to prefer policies that put limited burdens on public
budgets, and in some cases even improved their balance. Economic
instruments were often referred to as potentially the most effective
type of measures. Voluntary agreements were used in several Parties,
primarily in those sectors where other types of instruments were seen
as less applicable for reasons of competitiveness, notably in
industry, but also together with other instruments; a few Parties
(e.g. Australia, Japan, United States) used voluntary agreements as a
general approach to climate change problems. The IDRs demonstrated
that, with some exceptions, voluntary agreements were in the early
stages. In some Parties the use of energy efficient combined heat and
power (CHP) stations was rapidly increasing as a result of specific
policies or favourable market developments.
27. Mitigation of climate change was one of several reasons for
implementing the majority of measures, the main rationale often being
economic, in particular for measures improving energy efficiency in
all sectors. A significant proportion of the measures were reported
as the "no regrets" type. It was not always possible to distinguish
from the communications between planned and implemented measures, and
in the case of measures that were implemented, indicators of progress
were often missing. This last factor made it difficult to draw a
parallel between effects expected from the most significant measures
and the projected GHG levels for 2000; in-depth reviews have been
helpful in clarifying these and other issues.
28. Removals of subsidies in, for example, the energy and
agriculture sectors were reported to reduce CO2,
CH4 and N2O. Deregulation, especially in the
electricity sector, was reported as a central factor causing
reductions in several Parties. In the EIT Parties, the process of
economic restructuring and establishing market prices on energy
commodities caused the bulk of the reductions, and specific
programmes directly aimed at mitigating climate change were often in
an initial phase. For the Parties that reported policies and measures
in the land-use change and forestry sector, these related mostly to
forestry management, often aiming at sustainable utilization. IDRs
confirmed that, at present, these practices in general result in
increasing the sink capacity.
29. There was no uniform pattern of reporting on the effectiveness
of measures across Parties which would enable specific conclusions to
be drawn as regards their overall impact or applicability in the
various sectors of the economy. The IDRs have addressed policies and
measures initiated both before and after the base year, as these were
seen by the teams as equally important for the trends in emissions.
Information on effects of individual measures was often sketchy or
based on assumptions that were not always transparent; the
cost-effectiveness of measures, including specific information on
costs and benefits, was rarely discussed thus making it difficult to
evaluate what measures were the most significant or effective. Those
measures which were identified as effective were not necessarily most
frequently implemented, and sectors where descriptions of measures
were most detailed or complete were not always the most important
emitters or the fastest growing ones. For example, relatively few
policies and measures were reported in the transport sector, despite
the fact that emissions from this sector are rapidly growing in
virtually all Parties. Although the IDRs revealed that considerable
fuel and vehicle taxes, technical measures, support for public
transport and physical planning measures are in place in several
Parties and could slow emissions growth, this growth is still
robust.
30. A number of Parties indicated the need to consider policies
and measures requiring international cooperation, in particular
taxes. Five Parties (Denmark, Finland, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden)
had unilaterally implemented taxes aiming at reducing CO2
emissions, taxing CO2 only or both CO2 and
energy elements. These taxes had a number of exemptions for reasons
of competitiveness (for energy-intensive industries, bunker fuels,
fuels for electricity production), which were seen as necessary as
long as such taxes were not applied in other countries. A frequently
reported policy, although not yet implemented, was the combined
CO2/energy tax under discussion in the European Community.
Some Parties to some extent also coordinated among themselves
mitigation efforts, such as energy consumption standards for
appliances that are sold on regional markets.
31. Some significant reductions were reported and partly
implemented in the industrial sector, related to process changes in
aluminium production resulting in reductions of PFC emissions, and in
adipic acid production reducing emissions of nitrous oxide. In the
waste sector, sorting, recycling and changed landfill management
practices in several Parties are expected to yield considerable
reductions in methane emissions towards the end of the decade and
onwards. In the residential, commercial and institutional sector, the
communications focused on regulations and standards for new buildings
as well as on a variety of measures (taxes, demand-side management
programmes, information and education) promoting efficient energy use
in existing buildings. Some innovative measures were aimed at
enhancing the development of energy efficient
appliances.
AND MEASURES
32. The majority of the reporting Parties provided data for the
three major greenhouse gases and presented projections for 2000; more
than half of the Parties projected precursors and removals by sinks,
and in several cases projections for other gases were also reported.
Approximately half of the reporting Parties provided assessments or
estimates of the total effects of measures, ranging from 4 to 20 per
cent for CO2 compared to baselines, and a wider range for
other gases, often noting methodological difficulties. The
projections are not comparable between Parties and the individual
national totals have not been added. Full numerical data for
projections are presented in tables B.1 to
B.8;(9) tables 1 and 2, summarizing
the inventory and projection data, are annexed to this
document.
33. The projections were developed using different approaches
and assumptions, although the latter were often based on, or in line
with, those used by authoritative international sources. Most Parties
provided enough information to allow for a qualitative understanding
of the approaches used and further elaborated on them during the
IDRs, although it was often not clear which policies and measures
were reflected. Four Parties adjusted their base year figures upward
to account for electricity imports or climatic anomalies in the base
year (see tables 1 and 2 in the annex).
34. The following discussion compares projected figures for
2000 with the base year figures used in developing the projections. A
comparison with inventory data was often not applicable since either
Parties did not make projections for all gases reported in the
inventories, or for all sources, or there were other differences.
Some EIT Parties mentioned difficulties in making robust projections,
due to the high level of uncertainty about economic growth, effects
of the ongoing economic restructuring and insufficient statistical
data.
35. All Parties but two (Monaco, Romania) provided "with
measures" projections for CO2, two Parties (Estonia,
Germany) doing so after their communications were submitted. The
projections reveal a different pattern for CO2 (excluding
land-use change and forestry sector) from that for other greenhouse
gases. Seventeen Parties, accounting for about 61 per cent of 1990
CO2 emissions, projected an increase to 2000 in the
absence of additional measures. Fourteen Parties (Denmark, Germany,
Luxembourg, Netherlands, Switzerland, United Kingdom and eight EITs)
projected stabilization or decrease for 2000 in comparison to the
base year levels. These represented 38 per cent of the 1990
inventories. In the EITs, the emissions decreased sharply in the
first half of the 1990s. Several of them indicated that in the
absence of additional measures their GHG emissions could start
growing from 1994-1995, while still staying below the base year
levels in 2000.
36. The IDRs demonstrated that for a number of Parties,
higher growth in GDP, lower energy prices and a different
implementation rate of policies and measures from that previously
assumed are causing higher-than-anticipated growth in CO2
emissions. For one Party (United Kingdom), reforms in the energy
market resulted in fuel shifts and expected reductions in emissions.
During the in-depth review, two other Parties (Ireland, Spain)
reduced their estimates for the considerable emissions growth
expected in this decade. Adjustments made by four Parties (Denmark,
France, Netherlands, Switzerland) to their 1990 starting points for
projections resulted in figures 3 to 12 per cent higher than the
non-adjusted values, which changed the projections for three
(Denmark, Netherlands, Switzerland) from growth or stabilization to
reductions.
37. The IDRs also indicated that most Parties could face
additional increases in CO2 emissions after 2000 as a
result of economic and/or population growth. In a number of Parties
these increases were attributed to a freeze on new nuclear power
capacity or decisions to phase it out, as well as to more
self-reliance in electricity production. For all Parties but Latvia
that provided sectoral projections, transport emissions were
projected to grow, while both decreases and increases in emissions
were projected for other sectors.
38. For seventeen Parties the land-use change and forestry
sector was projected to remain a net removal, while Australia
projected it to stay a net source, although a smaller one. Some
Parties pointed out that in the longer term net removals will
fluctuate around zero. For eleven Parties net CO2 removals
by the land-use change and forestry sector in 2000 were projected to
increase, and three Parties (Denmark, Germany, United Kingdom)
projected removals to remain stable. Latvia and Sweden indicated that
their removals could be decreasing, while Finland presented a range
with substantial increases and decreases both described as plausible
options.
39. Projections for CH4 emissions were provided by
26 Parties, although four of them did not include all sectors. All
but three of these Parties (Australia, Canada, Luxembourg),
accounting for 60 per cent of the aggregated inventory figures for
1990, projected stabilization or decreases in CH4
emissions from their base years, thirteen of them projecting
decreases of 10 to 70 per cent. The Parties that projected increases
accounted for 9 per cent of the aggregated inventory figures for
1990. Reductions in CH4 emissions were often expected to
be realized in the second half of the decade, reflecting, in
particular, new waste treatment and disposal
policies.
40. Fourteen Parties, accounting for 58 per cent of the
aggregated inventory figure for N2O for 1990, projected
stabilization or decreases compared to their base years, four of them
decreases of more than 35 per cent, often due to expected
improvements in industrial processes. Ten Parties, accounting for 26
per cent of the aggregated inventory figures for 1990, projected
increases, eight of these of less than 10 per cent. Fewer Parties
provided projections for other gases and precursors but for those
that did so, emissions of perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and precursors are
often projected to decrease, while emissions of hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs) increase as they replace substances being phased out under the
Montreal Protocol.
41. When all projected emissions (excluding land-use change
and forestry) are totalled using IPCC-1994 GWP for all Parties,
sixteen of them (Denmark, France, Germany, Iceland, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Switzerland, United Kingdom and eight EITs), accounting
for 42 per cent of the aggregated 1990 inventory figure, projected
stabilization or decrease. Fifteen Parties, accounting for 55 per
cent of the aggregated 1990 inventory, projected an increase; three
of these (Japan, New Zealand and United States), accounting for 42
cent of the aggregated 1990 inventory, projected an increase of 2 per
cent or less. If unadjusted figures had been compared, one more Party
(Denmark) would have shown an increase, while the other three
(France, Netherlands, Switzerland) that applied adjustments would
still show stabilization or decrease.
42. When the available data for land-use change and forestry
reported by eighteen Parties are aggregated with other projected
emissions, considerable differences between net and gross figures
occur for several Parties. It should be noted that the secretariat
received comments from some Parties questioning the appropriateness
of presenting such net data; these comments are discussed in document
FCCC/SBSTA/9/Add.1. Eighteen Parties, accounting for 76 per cent of
the aggregated inventory figure for 1990, projected stabilization or
decrease for this sector. Eight of these were Parties with economies
in transition. Thirteen Parties, accounting for 23 per cent of 1990
emissions, projected increases. If unadjusted figures had been
compared, another Party (Denmark) would have shown an increase, while
the other three (France, Netherlands, Switzerland) that applied
adjustments would still have shown stabilization or
decrease.
43. In due course, it will be possible to assess progress
towards achievement of the aim of returning emissions to 1990 levels
by 2000 by comparing the inventory figures for these two years. At
present, a comparison of projections for 2000 with inventories for
the base year and the information obtained from the IDRs, suggests
that for the majority of Annex I Parties additional measures would be
needed to return CO2 emissions to their 1990 level by
2000. A similar comparison made using GWPs for all GHGs combined
(excluding land-use change and forestry sector), indicates that
several Annex I Parties could have difficulties in returning these
emissions to their 1990 levels in 2000. Inventory data for 1991-1994
submitted to the secretariat so far by several of the Annex I Parties
seem to justify this concern (see tables 1 and 2 annexed to this
document). Although an initial rise is not inconsistent with the aim
of returning emissions to 1990 levels by 2000, it suggests that
additional efforts may be needed in the remaining few years.
Nevertheless, during the IDRs some indications were given that in a
number of Parties which projected growth in emissions, return to
their base year levels was felt to be within reach.
44. In accordance with Article 12.3 of the Convention, 20 out
of 22 reporting Annex II Parties described measures taken to meet
their commitments outlined in Article 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5. The majority
of Parties(10) reported on their
contributions to the Global Environment Facility (GEF), some Parties
stating explicitly that such contributions were new and additional.
In addition to funding of the GEF some Parties reported on other
means of financing through their official development assistance
(ODA).(11)
45. Most of the Parties reported on activities implemented
through bilateral, regional and
multilateral channels. Due to the varying degree and
breadth of reporting it was not possible to quantify aid flows
supportive of the Convention at an aggregate level and it was
therefore difficult to draw a comparative summary of the
comprehensiveness of activities.
46. The majority of Parties discussed support for the
transfer of technology through
multilateral and bilateral cooperation, and in a few cases through
private sector cooperation. The information differed considerably in
format, thoroughness and level of detail and consequently a
comprehensive portrayal of technology transfer activities is not
possible at this stage. The bilateral cooperation activities reported
were often related to "hard" technologies rather than to the "soft"
technologies of capacity building, training and
research.
47. The majority of Parties in their discussions on bilateral
channels of assistance either explicitly or implicitly touched on
assistance in capacity building. The
areas of assistance most often referred to were: general or
managerial training in relation to energy (efficiency and renewable
energy), forestry, natural resources, impacts and vulnerability,
technology and meteorology; country studies activities, including
development of inventories and databases, identification of
mitigation and adaptation response options and development of
strategies; research activities to strengthen the capacity of
developing countries, including exchanges and funding of joint
projects.
48. About half of the Parties reported on cooperation with
developing countries in activities related to
adaptation and vulnerability assessment.
The types of projects and activities that were most often discussed
dealt with studies of vulnerability assessment and potential impacts,
including natural hazards prevention and disaster control, adapting
agriculture to the impact of climate change, ecosystem management,
coastal zone management, studies of sealevel rise and capacity
building of meteorological services.
49. Half of the Parties reported on activities
to assist countries with economies in transition. The
majority of these cooperative activities were capacity building
initiatives and technology transfer, thus relevant to the
implementation of Article 4.5. The activities included: the
enhancement of capacities through country studies, inventories
assistance, and policy planning and formation; institution building
initiatives such as assistance for increasing plant safety (nuclear),
improvement of technical systems and stiffening of regulatory
regimes; the transfer of technology through technological and
commercial partnerships, including partnerships and cooperative
arrangements for pipeline production and gas transportation; efforts
to increase energy efficiency in the transportation and residential
sectors, the conversion of power plants to more efficient
technologies, and the promotion of renewable energy
sources.
RELATED ISSUES
50. With regard to commitments under Article 4.1(b) and (e),
23 national communications discussed in varying detail, the
vulnerability of ecosystems, economic
sectors and society and the expected impacts of climate
change thereon.(12) The
communications generally treated the expected impacts of climate
change and vulnerability to climate change as a single issue, but the
former was more often discussed.
51. Some Parties included information on a national climate
change scenario (derived from existing models) which was used as a
basis for assessing potential impacts and vulnerability. The
uncertainties regarding the scenarios were noted, particularly the
inadequacy of global models for predicting regional or national
climate change. Different time-scales and key assumptions were used
to predict possible temperature increases or other climate change
impacts.
52. Uncertainties with regard to the prediction of climate
change were mentioned by some Parties as a fundamental problem in
assessing possible impacts of climate change and the consequent
vulnerability of ecosystems, sectors of the economy and society. In
addition, many communications mentioned that impacts and
vulnerability were difficult to assess because of the complexity of
the systems and the interactions among several factors. They
emphasized that improving the prediction of national or regional
climate change was the essential first step.
53. Many Parties included some discussion of
adaptation measures. Less than half of
them reported on adaptation activities other than research. Most of
the reported measures are also targeted to other current needs. Some
Parties mentioned supporting measures to achieve a better adaptation
to climate change impacts such as administrative changes, management
plans and strategies. The relatively low degree of reporting about
vulnerability and adaptation suggests that a high level of
uncertainty in this regard, rather than a non-fulfilment of the
current guidelines.
54. The majority of Parties reported on
research and systematic observation,
although the scope of coverage, depth and level of detail varied
widely. Research activities covered a wide spectrum including
scientific research, climate change impacts and response adaptation
measures. Considerable attention was devoted to research into
greenhouse gas emissions, particularly in the energy field but also
in other areas, including agriculture and
forestry.
55. Scientific research included not only atmospheric
chemistry but also studies on regional climate change and sealevel
rise. Although most Parties indicated that current research is taking
place nationally, a number also stated that they participated in
international research activities particularly those organized under
the World Climate Research Programme, the International
Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the Man and Biosphere Programme.
Many also mentioned their active participation in the work of the
IPCC.
56. The issues of public awareness, information
dissemination, education, training and participation
were, in general, well described by the majority of Parties. Many
communications provided an extensive account of the initiatives taken
in this area while others described only a few specific projects to
illustrate the general approach.
57. The programmes relating to public awareness focused on
campaigns to provide information on the effects of climate change and
to promote the social acceptability of policies through voluntary
action to reduce emissions. The information campaigns described were
aimed at the general public, although a number did focus on specific
groups. The themes of the campaigns centred mostly on the promotion
of energy-efficient behaviour for the reduction of CO2
emissions, including practical guidance in some cases. Other areas of
focus included the effects of climate change, the promotion of
renewable energy and the protection of forests. Public participation
in the form of collaborative action and partnerships between the
Government and other groups was described in the majority of the
communications, although the extent of public involvement varied
considerably. Only a few Parties commented on the form and
effectiveness of their programmes relating to education, training and
public awareness.
Table 1. Anthropogenic emissions of CO2, excluding land-use change and forestry, relative inventory
figures for 1991-1994 and projections data for
2000
Data from inventories Data from
projectionsa)
(percentage relative to 1990, 1990=100)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 2000
(Gg) % % % % %
Australia 288 965 115
Austria 59 200 110
Bulgaria (1990) 82 990 84
Bulgaria (1988)b) 96 878 72
Canada 462 643 98 101 102 105 113
Czech Republic 165 792 94 86 84 83
Denmark 52 025 121 110 114 121 103
Denmark (electr. trade adjusted)c) 58 278 105 104 103 101 92
Estonia 37 797 97 74 55 57 46 - 61
Finland 53 900 100 96 97 108 130
France (temp. adjusted)d) 366 536 106 102 100 104 d)
Germany 1 014 155 96 91 90 90
Greece 82 100 115
Hungary (1990) 71 673 99
Hungary (1985-1987)b) 83 676 84
Iceland 2 172 96 101 106 105
Ireland 30 719 <120
Italy 428 941 114
Japan 1 155 000 102 103 101 107 102
Latvia 22 976 <74
Liechtenstein 208 118
Luxembourg 11 343 67
Monaco 71
Netherlands 167 600 104 103 104 105 >100
Netherlands (temp. adjusted)e) 174 000 100 101 100 102 >96
New Zealand 25 476 102 110 107 108 >(114 -117)
Norway 35 514 95 96 101 106 114
Poland (1990) 414 930 96 90
Poland (1988)b) 478 880 83 78 74 - 99
Portugal 42 148 140
Romania (1990) 171 103 83 72 70
Romania (1989)b) 198 479 71 62 61
Russian Federation 2 388 720 83 - 87
Slovakia 58 278 84
Spain 227 322 116
Sweden 61 256 89 92 90 95 104
Switzerland (temp. adjusted)d) 45 070 103 101 98 96 96 d)
United Kingdom 577 012 102 99 97 96 92 - 96
United States 4 957 022 99 100 103 103 >103
a) For further notes to the 2000 figures see table B.1 (FCCC/CP/1996/12/Add.2).
b) Some Parties with economies in transition have chosen different base years than 1990, referring to Article 4.6.
c) All figures are adjusted for electricity trade.
d) The 2000 figure refers to the temperature adjusted 1990 figure.
e) All figures are adjusted for temperature.
Table 2. Anthropogenic emissions of all greenhouse gases, excluding land-use change and forestry,
relative data for 1991-1994 and projections data for 2000
(CO2 equivalent in gigagrams using IPCC 1994
GWPs, time horizon = 100 years)
Data from inventories Data from
projectionsa)
(percentage relative to 1990, 1990=100)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 2000
(Gg) % % % % %
Australia 465 305 110
Austria 75 286 108
Bulgaria (1990) 123 755 90
Bulgaria (1988)b) 141 345 78
Canada 577 954 99 102 103 106 112 - 114
Czech Republic 196 551 83
Denmark 65 517 117 108 111 119 101
Denmark (electr. trade adjusted)c) 71 770 104 103 103 103 92
Estonia 46 479 96 73 55 57 46 - 61
Finland 67 114 100 91 92 102 124
France (temp. adjusted)d) 494 032 104 101 99 98 d)
Germany 1 241 509 94 90 90 87
Greece 94 888 113
Hungary (1990) 88 674 93
Hungary (1985-1987)b) 104 082 78
Iceland 3 227 95 92 94 96
Ireland 63 757 111
Italy 563 117 107
Japan 1 206 523 102 103 101 102
Latvia 27 640 73
Liechtenstein 265 118
Luxembourg 12 123 70
Monaco 71
Netherlands 213 946 105 103 104 105 97
Netherlands (temp. adjusted)e) 220 346 102 102 101 103 94
New Zealand 80 266 99 101 99 100 101 - 102
Norway 52 235 96 92 96 100 104
Poland (1990) 614 300 73
Poland (1988)b) 572 257 78 64 - 82
Portugal 51 045 140
Romania (1990) 253 152 84 72 75
Romania (1989)b) 276 859 51 45 44
Russian Federation 3 078 892 83 - 87
Slovakia 71 900 85
Spain 310 070 76
Sweden 75 573 91 95 105
Switzerland (temp. adjusted)d) 58 196 103 100 98 97 97 d)
United Kingdom 724 754 101 97 94 94 94
United States 5 842 371 99 101 102 103 101
a) The 2000 figure may not cover all gases and sources covered by the inventory data, see table B.6 (FCCC/CP/1996/12/Add.2).
b) Some Parties with economies in transition have chosen different base years than 1990, referring to Article 4.6.
c) All figures are adjusted for electricity trade.
d) The 2000 figure refers to the temperature adjusted 1990 figure.
e) All figures are adjusted for temperature.
1. 1 Submission due date 15 October 1996.
2. 2 Submission due date 21 September 1994.
3. 3 Submission due date 22 December 1995.
4. 4 For decisions adopted by the Conference of the Parties at its first session, see document FCCC/CP/1995/7/Add.1.
5. 5 All references to "Parties" in this document are to "Annex I Parties", except in section VI.
6. 6 See FCCC/CP/1996/12/Add.2.
7. 7 See FCCC/CP/1996/12/Add.2.
8. 8 See FCCC/CP/1996/12/Add.1.
9. 9 See FCCC/CP/1996/12/Add.2.
10. 10 All references to Parties in this section are to Parties included in Annex II.
11. 11 It should be noted that, starting in 1996, up to a maximum of 84 per cent of contributions to the GEF can now be reported as ODA.
12. 12 "Vulnerability" and "impact" are defined as in the IPCC Technical Guidelines for Assessing Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation, WMO/UNEP, Geneva, 1994, p.3.